Indus Civilization Sculpture

Perhaps, the most beautiful amongst all of Indus valley art is the statue of ‘Dancing girl’

This statue is made of metal and is probably one of the finest examples of the artistic and technical skills of Indus Valley craftsmen

This female figure at the same time shows the fine skills of metal casting and artistic refinery.

The figure is lanky, thin and rhythmic in character

Some very interesting points can be noticed in sculpture:

First of all, while she has been shown without clothes, in her left hand she has bangles till almost her shoulder, very much like we can find in the tribal people of modern days in Gujarat and Rajasthan region.

Second important thing to notice is the hairstyle. While the other mother goddess figures, which have been found from this civilization, have a queer and elaborate hair style. This figure shows a much contemporary style.

Also to be noticed is its curious posture. She stands in a resting posture with her right hand at her waist and her left hand on her left thigh. The casting is perfect. It shows accuracy of the artists in metal casting during that period.

There is tremendous monumentality in this particular sculpture. That means, though this is approximately 4 inches in height only, it seems to be a larger one to us. This is what makes it really unique

Two male figures – one a torso in red sandstone and the other a bust of a bearded man in steatite are other important evidences of sculptures from this time period

Kalibangan and Daimabad have yielded significant examples of metal- cast sculptures.

Apart from metal sculptures, sculptures made from terracotta have also been discovered here. Some well-known examples of these are Mother Goddess, Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals etc

Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes.

The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.

Buddhist Sculpture

From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire: the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central India; the Satavahanas, Ikshavaku, Abhiras, Vakatakas in southern and western India. Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as the Vaishnavas and the Saivas.

Some of the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found at Vidisha, Bharhut (MP), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (UP), Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha) etc

Bharhut Sculptures

The sculptures here are tall like the images of Yaksha and Yakshini in the Mauryan period.

In the relief panels depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is shown with tilted perspective

At Bharhut, narrative panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time progresses, apart from the main character in the story, others also start appearing in the picture space.

Availability of the space is utilized to the maximum by the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to the chest.

There is a general stiffness in the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance was modified by making images with deep carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good examples.

Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories. In one such narrative. Ex: Queen Mayadevi’s (mother of Siddhartha Gautama) dream, a descending elephant is shown

One main characteristic in all the male images of first–second centuries BCE of Bharhut sculptures is the knotted headgear

Sanchi Sculptures

The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District) is noteworthy in the stylistic progression

It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka. Sculptures depicting the normal life have also been depicted here.

Figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body

Heads have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity in the contours gets reduced and images are given movement

Carving techniques appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi Buddhas or the past Buddhas

The historical narratives such as the siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved with considerable details

Gandhara School of Sculpture

The sculptures tradition of Gandhara was influenced by traditions of Bactria, Parthia and local region

It flourished largely during the Kushan dynasty in the North-West frontier of the country

They used Grey/bluish grey sandstone

Buddhism was the main inspiration behind many of the sculptures

Features of the Gandhara sculptures:

Spiritual Buddha– there is a sense of calmness in the depiction of Buddha

Less ornaments on Buddha

Buddha has been depicted with wavy hair

Large forehead and eyes appear to be closed

The seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way

The Buddha and Bodhisattva figures resemble the Greek God Apollo with broad shoulders, a halo around the head

The physical features such as muscles, nails, hair have been done with great detail.

Mathura School of Sculpture

Spotted sandstone was the preferred medium for depiction of sculptures

There was outside influence of the traditions of Mathura school of sculptures

All 3 religions – Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism were depicted in Mathura style

This school was patronized by Kushana rulers

The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India

Salient features of this school of sculpture:

The Buddha image at Mathura is modeled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.

It may be noted that the images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas (weapons).

There is boldness in carving the large images, the volume of the images is projected out of the picture plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh.

The garments of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder.

Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are profusely sculpted.

In the second century CE, images in Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become fleshier.

In the third century CE, treatment of sculptural volume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness, movement in the posture is shown by increasing distance between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body posture.

Softness in the surface continues to get refined.

Transparent quality in the robes of the Buddha images is evident

Halo around the head is profusely decorated

Amaravati School of Sculpture

A Buddhist relic, having features belonging to Amaravati school of Art was unearthed by a group of Indologists on the banks of River Gundlakamma in Andhra Pradesh.

This form of art originated in the area of Amaravati, AP.

It was patronized by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshavaku

Prominent places where this style developed are Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi.

Features of this form of sculpture:

The material used in Amaravati art is ‘White marble’

Sculptures were carved in a naturalistic manner. Ex: ‘taming of an elephant by the Buddha’.

Reflects narratives theme based on life of Buddha and Jataka stories

Buddha is depicted both in human as well as in animal form

Both religious and secular imageswere present in this style.

The Amaravati style is more elegant and sophisticated.

The sculptured panels of Amaravati are characterised by delicacy of forms and linear grace.

Numerous scenes of dance and music adorn these reliefs displaying the joy of life.

Gupta Sculpture

The Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved – something that was never achieved before and has seldom been achieved since and in perfect balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography also considered as “The Golden Age of Indian Art”.Gupta sculpture seems to belong to a sphere that is entirely different. The Gupta artist seems to have been working for a higher ideal. A new orientation in the attitude towards art is noticed in the attempt to establish a closer harmony between art and thought, between the outer forms and the inner intellectual and spiritual conception of the people.

Features of Gupta sculpture

The human figure, taken as the image, is the pivot of Gupta sculpture. A new canon of beauty is evolved leading to the emergence of a new aesthetic ideal.

This ideal is based upon an explicit understanding of the human body in its inherent softness and suppleness.

The soft and pliant body of the Gupta sculpture with its smooth and shining texture, facilitates free and easy movement

Gupta sculptures are characterized by elaborate draperies, jewellery, etc.

The wet or transparent clinging drapery hence became the fashion of this age. But the sensuous effect of these draperies especially in the case of female figures was restrained by a conscious moral sense, and nudity as a rule was eliminated from Gupta sculpture.

The magnificent red sandstone image of the Buddha from Mathura is a most remarkable example of Gupta workmanship datable to the 5th century A.D. The great Master, in all his sublimity, is here shown standing with his right hand in Abhayamudra, assuring protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.

The smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy. The robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body. The head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

The finished mastery in execution and the majestic serenity of expression of the image of Buddha came to be adopted and locally modified by Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, Central Asia, China and Japan, etc., when these countries adopted the Buddhist religion.

The image of the standing Buddha is an excellent example of Gupta art in its maturity from Sarnath. Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated. The perfect execution of the figure matched by its serene spiritual expression is truly worthy of the sublime being.

Sarnath introduces not only a delicacy and refinement of form but also a relaxed attitude by bending the body in the case of the standing figure, slightly on its own axis, thus imparting to it a certain litheness and movement in contrast to the columnar rigidity of similar Mathura works.

The stone carving from the temples at Deogarh and those from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are excellent specimens of figure sculpture in their decorative setting. The large panel of Sheshashayi Vishnufrom the Deogarh temple, representing the Supreme being slumbering wakefully on the serpent Ananta, the symbol of eternity, in the interval between the dissolution of the universe and its new creation, is a magnificent example.

Medieval School of Sculpture

Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more tending towards ornamentation, creating highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such as half-human, half monsters.

The characteristic of this new form of style of art is the difference with classical art in attitude, if not in skill and aptitude. Loveliness and idealization are still the artist’s passion as they were for artists in the early classical period, but the love of the ornate, decorative details is now dominant over classic simplicity.

Examples of this form of sculptures during this time:

One of the distinguishing monuments of sculpture during this time is the magnificent prayer hall or Chaitya, at Karle in the Poona district.

Figure of Vrikshika, or a celestial damsel, from Gyraspur, in Gwalior, standing in a gracefully flexed pose, against a tree.

Pallavas Sculpture

An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi

Some of the outstanding sculptures that are credited to their patronage are the Mahishasurmardini in relief, Girigovardhana panel, Arjuna’s penanceor the Descent of the Ganga, Trivikrama Vishnu, Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam.

In the annals of Indian art, there is perhaps a no better example of the representation of the Elephant than that in the Arjuna’s penance scene. The celestial world, the temporal world as well as the animal world has been shown with masterly skill.

In all these examples the vigor of the composition is unique. The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form.

The thin and elongated limbs emphasize the tallness of the figure.

The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude. The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling.

A great masterpiece is the carving from Mahabalipuram showing the great goddess Durga engaged in a fierce battle with the buffalo headed demon aided by their respective armies. Riding on her lion she is rushing at the powerful demon with great courage. He is moving away, yet watching for a moment to attack.

Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing.

Rashtrakutas Sculpture

In the middle of the 8th century, the Rashtrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas.

They created the greatest wonder of medieval Indian art in their Kailasa temple at Ellora.

Quarried out of a hill and solid rocks, it is sculptured on a grand scale. The bold and magnificent carving in this temple shows the Rashtrakuta style of tall and powerfully built figures, reflecting spiritual and physical poise.

The beautiful architectural rock sculpture from Cave No.29 at Ellora shows the marriage of Siva and Parvati.

Siva holding the hand of the bashful Parvati occupies the centre of the composition. To the right Brahma, the creator is actively engaged in stirring up the flames of the sacred fire. The dignified grace of the divine couple and the gentle solemnity of the occasion have been portrayed by the sculptor with masterly skill.

Another magnificent sculpture at Ellora is a panel depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa. 

The cave shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous Mahishamurti.

The three heads emanating from one and the same body represent three different aspects of Lord Shiva. The central face with a calm and dignified appearance shows him as the creator, the one on the left, with a severe look, portrays him as the destroyer and the third, to the right, with a calm and pacific expression.

Cholas Sculpture

The Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to 13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at Tanjavur, Gangai Kondo Cholapuram, Darasurama, which are a veritable treasure house of their art.

At the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur which is the most mature and majestic of the Chola temples, sculpture, there has attained a new maturity which is evident in the gracefully modeled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, delicate ornamentation, pleasing faces and certain freshness, all of which add charm to the work. Chola art not only influenced the art of Ceylon, but it travelled as far away as Java and Sumatra

A good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of Siva as The irate god is engaged in a vigorous dance of fierce ecstasy after having killed the elephant demon, who has given so much trouble to the rishis and his devotees..

The later phase of Chola art, in the 13th century, is illustrated by the sculpture showing Bhudevi or the earth goddess as the younger consort of Vishnu. She stands in a gracefully flexed attitude on a lotus base holding a lily in her right hand, while the left arm hangs along her side in

Bronze sculpture tradition under the Cholas

The art reached a high stage of development during this time

The sculptors work during this time are famous for their elegance, sensitive modeling, and balanced tension

Realism and attention to finer details reached its utmost perfection during this time. Ex: Clear demarcation of the areas of the body, such as the creases between the torso and the stomach, around the navel, sharp edges along the tibiae, a pointed nose, facial expressions are one of the most noticeable features of this time (Nataraja image)

Chandelas Sculpture

The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D., constructed towering temples in central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho.These were sculpted with human representations of endless variety. The sculptor here preferred the slender taller figures with a considerable accentuation of linear details.

The art of Khajuraho is a world of beauty. The lovers locked in an embrace which is approximately carved, display a throbbing passion. Varying moods are brought into relief by a slight change in the smile, a little difference in expression and in the pose.

The sculptures of Khajuraho are such great masterpieces of Indian sculptural art that they can be admired both individually as well as cumulatively.

Palas Sculpture

Great impetus was given to art under the reign of Pala rulers in Bihar and Bengal during the period 730 to 1110 A.D.

They were Buddhist by faith. They greatly encouraged centres of learning like Nalanda and Vikramasila, where the stupas and monasteries gave ample scope for the sculptor’s expression of an art which found stimulus in religion.

During this period art reached technical perfection. The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration.

Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal. The Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in- Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand.

Some amount of stylization is noticed in the later phase of Pala art, but the tradition is continued under the Sena rulers in the 12th century until the Islamic rulers overran the country.

An excellent specimen from Mahanad in West Bengal is this lovely figure of the personified river goddess Ganga.She stands gracefully under a tree, Kalpataru, on a lotus, holding a water-vessel in her hand, symbolizing prosperity and plenty. The ends of her scarf draped around the arms, trail on either side. She is adorned with profuse jewellery and wears a lower garment reaching to the ankles. The figure is expressive and the workmanship is of a high order.

Eastern Gangas Sculpture

-The kings of the Eastern Ganga dynasty who held sway in Odisha from the 7th to the 13th centuries have left monumental temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konarak which are richly embellished with a wealth of sculptures.

-By the middle of the 9th century A.D. especially in Odisha, there developed a school of sculpture which, among other things, took sensuous delight in the lovely forms of women. There are numerous sculptures of beautiful female figures on the face of the walls.

-The Odisha temple has many such representations of young and charming creatures with seductive smiles, luxurious hair full of jewellery etc.

-Similar lovely women are seen to appear everywhere as if growing out of trees and creepers, themselves like beautiful flowers and vines, often holding on to branches of trees and standing on floral ornaments. They are nymphs, and spirits that live in trees and shrubs and animate them.

-They are shown decorating the walls and temples in Odisha, which become vast forests of ornamentation, crowded with flowers, scrolls and elegant geometric design. Most of these lovely ladies stand in various dance poses

-The famous temple at Konark was built by Narasimhavarmanin the middle of the 12th century and dedicated to Surya or the sun god. 

-It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses. Its presiding deity, the sun-god as seen here, is depicted in the typical north Indian manner, wearing boots, chain-mail armor, holding a lotus in each hand. He is riding a chariot driven by seven horses. On each side are his two wives, Chhaya and Suvarchasa, and the attendant’s Danda and Pingla.

On the plinth of the Jagmohana of the temple, at a height of about 50 feet from the ground, are installed colossal celestial musicians facing in all directions, playing on different musical instruments. These celestial maidens are shown playing the Veena. The massive proportions and powerful modeling of the figure, and a gentle smile on her face, express a sense of harmonious delight.

Another celestial maiden, similar to the Veena player, is this drummer. They are all in pink coloured sandstone of a rough texture. These figures are of colossal proportions yet very elegantly and beautifully carved.

Narasimha, the great builder of the Konarak templeis shown here on a swing in his harem, surrounded by beautiful women and listening to music.

Another scene shows him appreciating literature in an assembly of poets patronized by him.

Yet another shows his tolerance for faiths by presenting him before Siva, Jagannath and Durga. There are several other similar representations of his life, and Konarak, with its rich sculpture, may be considered a storehouse of 13th-century culture in Odisha.

The image of Surya from the Sun Temple at Konarak drawn by seven rearing horses, one of which fully caparisoned, is of monumental proportions.

The Odisha artist without giving up the conventional lines of grace and vigor produced images that were faultless in the perfection of their form and vitality.

The examples of this school have sensuous charm and beauty of form.The Mithuna, or a pair of amorous lovers, glows with the exuberance characteristic of Odisha art. They have the eternal smile of lovers who are absorbed in each other. In point of time as well as technique, Odisha art culminates in the famous Sun-temple at Konarak.

Marble sculptures in Western India

-The traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures that decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana.

-The beautiful image of the four-armed Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation, was fashioned in the 13th century A.D. under the characteristic attributes that is the mace, the discus and conch­-shell. The hand which hold the lotus is now lost.

-The weapons are again shown as personified attendant figures on the base. On either side are seen the conventional decorative motifs, and the miniature image of Brahma and Siva, within rectangular niches.

-The Dilwara temples at Mount Abu are the outstanding productions of the western school in the Jain tradition. They are not monuments of architecture, but are sculptural masterpieces, placed one upon the other to fashion one of the sculptural wonders of the world. The ceiling of the Dilwara temple, especially, is one of the world’s masterpieces of intricate sculptural carvings.

Hoysalas Sculpture

-A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain Govardhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra, who let loose torrential rains to teach them a lesson for their insolence, in paying homage to Mount Govardhana instead of worshipping him. The Mountain with its forest and animal kingdom is held aloft by the youthful Krishna on his left hand, sheltering the entire population of Gokul, including the cows.

-The artist takes delight no more in the depiction of the beauty of the handsome male or the loveliness of the female body.

-The human body almost completely disappears under a fantastic mass of decoration and ornamentation which become more important than the human figure.

-In the sculpture of the period showing a woman holding a fly-whisk and other figures, we come to the almost total disappearance of the body.

-The temples they built at Halebidu and Belur look like lacework in stone. The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body.

-Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold.

Vijayanagara Empire Sculpture

-The last great Hindu Kingdom in South India was Vijayanagara. During this regime, from circa 1336 to 1565 A.D. several beautiful temples were erected at places like Tadpatri, Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc.

-Carving in these temples show the Chola and Chalukyan art traditions. During this period representations in narrative forms of the Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila became favorite themes.

-The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors to immortalize them in the vicinity of their favorite deities.

-One such fine example is of Krishnadevarayaat one of the Gopuras at Chidambaram. The final flicker of this, however, is seen in the amazingly virile sculpture in titanic proportions carved by the sculptors of Tirumylnayak, and the Gopuram and the courts of Meenakshi temple at Madurai.

-Bronze sculpture tradition during Vijayanagara rule

-During the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the ornamentation tended to become more elaborate, interfering with the smooth rhythm of the body, and the postures became more rigid.

-The sculptors in this period have combined the likeness of the facial features with certain elements of idealization. The idealization is further observed in the manner the physical body is modeled to appear imposing as well as graceful. 

-Ex: life-size standing portrait statues of Krishnadevaraya found at Tiruppathi

Sculpture of Nayakas of Madurai and Thanjavur

-The 17th century was a great period of titanic work under the Nayaka of Madurai and Tanjavur.

-During this period the animal motif with fantastic detail as seen in the outstanding sculpture at Srirangam temple in Trichinapallymay be seen.

-Though, stylized, this art is full of vitality.

-A pair of rampant, furious horses whose heads support the pillars, are carved with great skill and vigor. The riders are shown in realistic poses trying to control them. Each sculpture is realistic though the concept is fantastic.

Mughals Sculpture

-Though traditions of stone sculptures continued, no major sculpture movement survived under the Mughal and the other Muhammadan rulers

-Under the Muhammadan rulers, a great impetus was given to architecture, but sculptures are rarely found and even those available are products of local chieftains.

-During the British regime, no proper patronage was provided to sculptors and the whole tradition of Indian art almost came to a standstill.

Modern Indian Sculpture

The basic characteristics and problems of contemporary Indian Sculpture are very similar to those of contemporary painting.

It began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and smugness, and was a legacy of the British. This mannerism was perpetrated in the government art schools and colleges established around the century in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and elsewhere.

However, this contemporary style evolved from academism to well-defined non-objectivism.

Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety of painting and has not arrived at the logical ‘cul de sac’ which in the case of painting has provided the necessary height and perspective