Nobel Prize 2023

Physics 

Winners – Pierre Agostini (Tunisia), Ferenc Krausz (Hungary), Anne L Huillier (France) 

Work – Experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter

Chemistry 

Winners – Moungi G. Bawendi (France), Louis E Brus (US), Alexei I Ekimov (Russia)

Work – Discovery and synthesis of quantum dots

Physiology / Medicine 

Winners – Katalin Kariko (Hungary), Drew Weissman (US)

Work – Discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against Covid-19

Economic Sciences – 

Winners – Claudia Goldin (US) 

Work – For having advanced our understanding of women’s labour market outcomes

Peace 

Winner – Narges Mohammadi (Iran)

Work = Fight against the oppression of women in Iran and fight to promote human rights and freedom for all. 

Literature 

Winner – Jon Olav Fosse (Norway)

Work – Innovative plays and prose which give voice to the unsayable 

Language – Norwegian Nyorsk

Modern India History

Newspapers during National Movement 

1780 - Bengal Gazette - English - James Augustus Hicky

1819 - Samvad Koumudi - Bengali weekly - Ram Mohan Roy

1822 - Mirat - ul - Akbar - Persian language journal - Raja Ram Mohan Roy 

1853 - Hindoo Patriot - English Weekly - Madhusudan Roy

1854 - Rast Gaftar - Gujarati Newspaper - Dadabhai Naoroji 

1858 - Som Prakesh - weekly newspaper - Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

1862 - Indian Mirror - Newspaper - Devendra Nath Tagore 

1868 - Amrita Bazar Patrika - Newspaper - Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh 

1871 - Tahzib - ul - Akhlaq - Journal - Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

1878 - Hindu - Newspaper - Vir Raghavacharya and GS Aiyar

1881 - Kesari - Marathi Newspaper - BG Tilak 

1888 - Sudharak - Newspaper - Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 

1896 - Prabuddha Bharata - English Monthly journal - P Aiyasami, BR Rajam Iyer, GG Narasimhacharya, BV Kamesvara Iyer at the behest of Swami Vivekananda 

1899 - Udbodhana - Magazine - Swami Vivekananda 

1903 - Indian opinion - Newspaper - MK Gandhi

1905 - Bande Mataram - English Language newspaper - Aurobindo Ghosh

1910 - Bombay Chronicle - English - language newspaper - Firoze Shah Mehta 

1911 - Comrade - Weekly English Newspaper - Maulana Mohammad Ali 

1912 - Al - Balagh - Urdu weekly Newspaper - Abul Kalam Azad

1912 - Al - Hilal - Urdu weekly newspaper - Abul Kalam Azad

1913 - Pratap - Hindi language newspaper - Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi

1914 - New India - English - language daily newspaper - Annie Besant

1919 - Independent - Newspaper - Motilal Nehru

1919 - Young India - Weekly Journal - MK Gandhi

1920 - Mook Nayak - Marathi Weekly - BR Ambedkar 

1924 - Hindustan Times - English Daily Newspaper - Sunder Singh Lyallpuri

1929 - Nav Jeevan - Weekly newspaper - MK Gandhi

1932 - Harijan - Weekly journal - MK Gandhi

1936 - Free Hindustan - Journal - Tarak Nath Das

1936 - Hindustan Dainik - Hindi Newspaper - MM Malviya

Q. Tell me about yourself.

Ans. I am currently PA to Director, where I handle _ _ _ besides charter of duties. Before that I worked in MoUD where I was posted in Vigilance Unit, Smart Cities Mission & Urban Division and before that I was in Delhi District Court. I really enjoyed the work that I did, I like the chance to dig in much deeper in Training Division of ISTM, which is why I am excited about this opportunity. 

Q 2 Walk me through your resume.

Ans. As you see from resume, graduation from DU regular college, I liked to go in teaching however due to family commitments I had to take job in early stage. Now, I have got an opportunity to come to this line and teach, 

-To schedule, organize and direct training programmes for senior / supervisory and operating level officers of the Central / State Governments / UTs / PSUs / Autonomous Bodies etc.

-To develop training materials, case studies etc.

-To develop e-contents, instruction design and curriculum design.

-To conduct training session, Research activities, Consultancy Work

-To assist the Director of the Institute in Administrative and Training matters as may be assigned.

Q3 How did you hear about this position?

Ans. I have always been monitoring website of ISTM, I always tried to enter, but my current profile does not have opportunity, one day I saw notification of AD (EST), a ray of hope.

Q4 Why do you want to work at this company?

Ans. I have interest in teaching, training, developing study material. To club my current profile, this is the only platform that I see. I will fulfil my family commitments and my hobby. There’ll be opportunities to train new teammates. 

INC Sessions 

1 Bombay 1885 - Womesh Chandra Bannerjee

2 Calcutta 1886 - Dadabhai Naoroji

3 Madras 1887 - Badruddin Tyabji

4 Allahabad 1888 - George Yule 

5 Bombay 1889 - William Wedderburn

6 Caclcutta 1890 - Pherozshah Mehta

7 Nagpur 1891 P Ananda Charlu

8 Allahabad 1892 Womesh Chandra Banerjee

9 Lahore 1893 Dadabhai Naoroji

10 Madras 1894 Alfred Webb

11 Pune 1895 Suredranath Banerjee

12 Calcutta 1896 Rahimatullah M Sayani

13 Amraoti 1897 C Sankaran Nair

14 Madras 1898 Ananda Mohan Bose

15 Lucknow 1899 Romesh Chunder Dutt

16 Lahore 1900 NG Chandavarkar

17 Calcutta 1901 Dinshaw Eduljee Wacha 

18 Allahabad 1902 Surendranath Banerjee

19 Madras 1903 Lal Mohan Ghosh 

20 Bombay 1904 Sir Henry Cotton 

21 Banaras 1905 Gopal Krishna Gokhle 

22 Calcutta 1906 Dadabhai Naoroji

23 Surat Suspended - 1907 - Rash Behari Ghosh 

24 Lahore 1909 Madan Mohan Malaviya

25 Allahabad 1910 William Wedderburn

26 Calcutta 1911 Bishan Narayan Dar

27 Bankipore 1912 Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar

28 Karachi 1913 Nawab Syed Mohammed Bahadur

29 Madras 1914 Bhupendra Nath Bose

30 Bombay 1915 Satyendra Prasanna Sinha

31 Lucknow 1916 Ambica Charan Mazumdar

32 Calcutta 1917 Annie Besant

33 Delhi 1918 Madan Mohan Malaviya

Special Session Bombay 1918 - Syed Hasan Imam

34 Amritsar 1919 Motilal Nehru

35 Nagpur 1920 C Vijayaraghavachariar

36 Ahmedabad 1921 Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting President for CR Das)

37 Gaya 1922 Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das

Special Session Delhi 1923 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad 

39 Belgaum 1924 MK Gandhi

40 Cawnpore 1925 Sarojini Naidu

41 Gawahati 1926 S Srinivasa Iyengar

42 Madras 1927 MA Ansari

43 Calcutta 1929 Motilal Nehru

44 Lahore 1929 JLN

45 Karchi 1931 Vallabbhai J Patel

47 Calcutta 1933 Mrs Nellie Sengupta

48 Bombay 1934 Dr Rajendra Prasad

49 Lucknow 1936 JLN 

50 Faizpur 1937 JLN 

51 Haripura 1938 Subhash Chandra Bose

52 Tripuri 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose

53 Ramgarh 1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

54 Meerut 1946 JB Kripalani

Timeline 

1857 - Revolt of 1857 - Sepoy Mutiny began in Meerut, spread to Delhi, Agra, Kanpur & Lucknow

1905-11 Swadeshi Movement - Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon 

1914-17 Gadar Movement - Komagata Maru incident

1916-18 - Home Rule Movement launched by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant 

1917 - Champaran Satyagrah - first non violent protest in India by M Gandhi

1919 - Rawlatt satyagrah

1920 Khilafat & Non - cooperation movement - first mass movement led by Gandhi

late 1922 - early 1923 - Establishment of Swaraj Party

1925 - Kakori Conspiracy

1927 - Simon Commission

1928- Assassination of Saunders by Bhagat Singh, Nehru Report

3rd Feb 1928 - Simmon Commission arrives in India

Dec 1929 - Purna Swaraj Declaration - Lahore Session

8 Apr 1929 - Bombing in Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh & Batukeshwar Dutt.

18 Apr 1930 - Chittagong armoury raid

12 Mar 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement - launched to break the Salt Law

06 Apr 1930 - Dandi March Ends

30 Nov 1930 - 1st round table conference 

5 Mar 1931 - Gandhi Irwin Pact, Karachi Session INC

7 Sep 1931 - 2nd Round Table Conference

1932 - Poona Pact & 3rd Round Table Conference

1935 - Govt of India Act

22 Jun 1939 - All India Forward Bloc formed

18-22 Aug 1940 - August Offer by Lord Linlithgow

1940 - Individual Satyagraha - Launched against the August Offer - 1940

1942 - Quit India Movement - Gandhi launched his third major movement against British Rule

1942 - Cripps Mission, Establishment of Indian Independence League, Formation of Azad Hind Fauj (01 Sept)

1945-Wavell Plan announced in Shimla Conference

1946- Cabinet Mission (formulated at the initiative of Clement Atlee, PM of UK)

June 1947 - Mountbatten Plan 

#Landholders Society - 1836 - Kolkata - Dwarkanath Tagore

#British India Society - 1839 - London - William Adam

#Bengal British India Society - 1843 - Kolkata

#British India Association - 1852 - Kolkata - Dwarkanath Tagore

#Madra Native Association - 1852 - Chennai (Madras) - Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty 

#Bombay Association - 1852 - Mumbai - Jagannath Shankar Seth 

#East India Association - 1866 - London - Dadabhai Naoroji

#National Indian Association - 1867 - London - Mary Carpenter

#Poona Sarvajanik Sabha - 1876 - Pune - Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi, SH Chiplunkar

#Indian Society - 1872 - London - Anand Mohan Bose

#Indian Association - 1876 - Kolkata - Surendranath Banerjee & Ananda Mohan Bose

#Madras Mahajan Sabha - 1884 - Chennai - M Veeraraghavachariar, G Subramania Iyer & P Anandacharlu

#Bombay Presidency Association - 1885 - Mumbai - Phirozshah Mehta, KT Telang & Badruddin Tyabji 

Leaders - 

Dadabhai Naoroji - 1825 - Navsari - 1917

Madan Mohan Malaviya - 1861 - 1946 (Prayagraj)

Lala Lajpat Rai - 1865 - Punjab - 1928

MK Gandhi - 1869 - Porbandar - 1948

Lala Hardyal - 1884 - Delhi - 1939

Subhash Chandra Bose - 1897 - Cuttack - 1945

#Landholder's Society - 1837 - Founder - Dwarkanath Tagore - Place - Kolkata - Other Members - Radhakant Deb, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Rajkamal Sen, Bhabani Charan Mitra, Objectives - It was an association of landholders of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and its principal objective was to guard its class interests, Membership - also extended to non-official Britishers engaged in Trade and Commerce in Bengal, It was the first to adopt the path of Constitutional Demonstration for the fulfilment of its objectives, Spread - it failed to take root in areas outside the Bengal Presidency, where the Permanent Settlement was not in vogue, Suppression - It became inactive around 1842, although it maintained a precarious existence till 1850. The Bengal British India Society took its place.

# Bengal British India Society - 1843 - Place - Calcutta, Aim - to promote good citizenship qualities in the Indian people, raise public awareness about the state of governance, and work toward their realisation through peaceful and legal means consistent with loyalty to the person and government of the reigning sovereign in England.

#Brittish Indian Association - 1851, Place - Calcutta - President - Raja Radhakant Deb & Secretary -Debendranath Tagore, Other Members - Ramgopal Ghosh, Peary Chand Mitra and Krishandas Pal, Membership - was exclusive to Indians, Objective - To secure improvements in the local administration of the country and in the system of government laid down by Parliament 

#Bengal Association - 1852, place - Calcutta, Aim - It petitioned the British Parliament to form an Indian Legislative Council entirely composed of Indians Only, It also condemned the policy of excluding Indians from all higher - level positions, as well as the lavish spending on Eruopean postings.

#Madras Native Organisation MNA - 1852 - Chennai - Founder - Gajula Lakshminarasu Chetty - it was first Indian political association to be formed in the Madras presidency, it was the political centre of the presidency's landed gentry, who had grievances against company rule. Factors that led to the establishment of the organisation: The impending discussion in the British Parliament regarding company rule in India provided the impetus for MNA's formation, Dissatisfied with the Company administration, the MNA petitioned the British Parliament to end the company regime following the passage of the Charter Act of 1853. The association presented the ryot's griveances under the land settlement systems in its first petition to Parliament in 1852, urging immediate action, this was followed by a visit from HD Seymour, Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, leading to the formation of the Torture Commission in 1854. Dissolution of the organisation - The MNA was dissolved in 1867. Despite the efforts to revive it in the 1870s, it ceased to exist by 1881. 

#London Indian Society - 1865 - London - Founder Dadabhai Naoroji - Of the founding group of Students included WC Banerjee, Manmohan Ghose, Pherozshah Mehta and Badruddin Tyabji by Dadabhai, It was founded by Indian Students as a forum for airing political grievances, Honorary membership was allowed for Europeans, but they could not vote or hold office, The London India Society was taken over by the East India Association in 1866, though it continued to exist in some form for a few more years.

#East India Association - 1866 -London - Founder - Dadabhai Naoroji in collaboration with Indians and retd British Officials, First President - Lord Lyveden, it superseded the London India Society, it was a platform for discussing matters and ideas about India and to provide representation for Indians to the Govt.  From its inception, the EIA published a journal of EIA. Udham Singh assassinated the former Governor of Punjab at the time of the Amritsar Massacre in March 1940, following a lecture delivered by Machael O'Dwyer at Caxton Hall. Merger - in 1949, the EIA merged with National Indian Association to form the Britain, India, and Pakistant Association. It merged with teh former Indian Society, now known as the Royal India, Pakistan, Ceylon Society, in 1966 to form the Royal Society for India, Pakistan and Ceylon.

#Poona Sarvajanik Sabha - April 1870 - Pune - Founders - it resulted from the labour of many great men like GV Joshi, SH Sathe, SH Chiplonkar and Mahadev Govind Ranade, Aim - The sabha was created to act as an intermediary between govt and Indians, in 1872 the sabha established a sub-committee to investigate the state's peasant and agricultural conditions and protect them from exploitation, In 1876, the sabha organised famine relief in Deccan region, it set up arbitration courts for the private settlement of civil disputes in order to save people from the high costs of litigation, in 1875, the sabha petitioned the House of Commons for Indian Representation in the British Parliament. 

#National Indian Association (NIA) - 1870, Founder - Mary Carpenter in Bristol, with the assistance of Keshub Chunder Sen, The organisation's full name was originally 'Natinoal Indian Association in Aid of Social Progress in India', The initial Goal of this Organisation was to promote female education in India. They also attempted to educate and inform the British on Indian Issues, As the no. of Indians in Britain grew, it became more important to facilitate social interaction between Indian visitors and British Residents

#Indian League - 1875 - Founder - Sisir Kumar Ghose - Aim - The league aspired to represent not only the middle class but the masses as well and to stimulate a sense of nationalism among the people.

#Indian National Association - 1876 - Founder - Surendranath Banerjee & Ananda Mohan Bose - In 1875 Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Sambhu Charan Mukherjee founded 'The India League to represent the middle class and foster a sense of nationalism among the people. The Indian National Association was founded as the Bharat Sabha, and its first annual conference was held in Calcutta. In 1886, this organisation merged with the Indian Natinoal Congress. Aim - establish a powerful public opinion on political issues, bring Indians together behind a common political agenda, It opposed the removal of the age limit for Indian Civil Service candidates in 1877. The organisation advocated for concurrent civil service examinations in both England and India, as well as the Indianisation of higher administrative positions, The Indian National Association superheaded an effort to repeal the repressive Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act. 

#Madras Mahajan Sabha -  Founded in May 1884. - Place: Madras - Founded by M Veeraraghavachariar, G Subramania Iyer, and P Ananda Charlu. - First president: P Rangaiah Naidu - Aim: As stated at the Adayar Theosophical Society conference, the goal is to free the country from British rule and to resolve national issues. - The Sabha has advocated for a variety of measures while remaining moderate, including tax reduction, cuts in government and military spending, abolition of the Council of India in London, concurrent Civil Service exams in England and India, fundamental rights for its fellow citizens, such as national freedom. - The Madras Mahajana Sabha launched the Salt Satyagraha in George Town in April 1930.

#Bombay Presidency Association - 1885 - Founder - Pherozshah Mehta, KT Telang, Badruddin Tyabji - It was founded in response to Lytton's reactionary policies and the Ilbert Bill controversy, The association always had cordial relations with Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, in Sep 1885, the Bombay Presidency Association, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Madras Mahajan Sabha, and Indian Association of Calcutta sent a joint deputation to England to present India's case to the British electorate, the delegation was led by N Chandavarkar of Bombay, Ramaswami Mudaliar of Madras, the Manmohan Ghosh of Calcutta, THe Triumvirate' or the Three Stars of Bombay's public life were Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta, and Kashinath Telang.

Social Service League - NM Joshi - All India Trade Union Congress 31 Oct 1920, Lala Lajpat Rai joined, Joseph Baptista, Diwan Chamanlal also joined.

#Servants of India Society - GK Gokhle - Political Guru of Gandhi

#Seva Samiti - HN Kunzru

#Social Reform Association - Veeresalingam Pantulu 1878 - Rennsiance in Telugu 

#Swaraj should be for common people not only for classes - Chittranjan R Das - Deshbandhu - India for Indians - Joined MLN and decided to form Swaraj Party in 1922 in Gaya Session of Congress and formed Swaraj Party on 01 Jan 1923, CR Das was president and MLN was secretary 

Swaraj Party formation reasons 

-failure of the Non cooperation movement (which was started on 01 Aug 1920 for Independence in one year)

-Swaraj Party formed on 01 Jan 1923

-Entering in the council and resection the Govt of India Act 1919 by don't let them work

Chronology of Events

• 04 Feb 1922 - Chauri Chaura Incident

• 11 - 12 Feb 1922 Bardoli Resolutions - (Bardoli in Gujarat)

• 12 Feb 1922 - Suspension of Non Cooperation Movement after Bardoli Resolution

• 1928 - Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel - Bardoli Satyagrah - Women support -

Objectives of Khilafat Movement 

• started in 1919 by two persons - Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali (Ali brothers)

• Turkish Sultan was dethroned.

• To rouse anti-British feelings among the muslim of India.

• To save the Ottoman empire and preserve the Khilafat.

- First factory in 1613 - Surat - Permission sought by William Hawkins in Durbar of Jahangir - He did not get permission. However, Thomas Roe got the permission later on.

-First Factory in Masulipatnam 

#Pondicherry - 

-The first European power to occupy Pondicherry were the Portuguese

-Second to occupy Dutch

-English captured Pondicherry in 1793

-1954 we captured from French

chronology 18th Century battles

-1749 - Battle of Ambur - Chanda Sahi + Muzaffar Jung + French against Anbaruddin and win

1757 - Battle of Plassey against Robert Clive win and lost by Siraj Ud Daula 

-1760 - Wandiwash - Count de lally french side - british General Eyrecoote

-1764 Battle of Buxar - against Hector Munro

Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta in 1784 - William Jones 

Matching

Buxar 1764 - Sujauddaula Shah Alam Mir Qasim vs EIC 

Wandiwash 1760 - French v EIC

Khurda War 1795 - Maratha v Nizam and nizam lost

Chilianwala 1849 Battle - Sikh v Dalhousie 

Match - 

Vasco da gama - Portugene

Christopher Columbus - Spain 

Captain Cook - Britain 

Tasman - Holland 

Carnatic Wars - 

1st - 1740-48 - Treaty of Aix La chapelle 

2nd 1749-54 - None won 

3rd 1758-63 - Paris Peace Conference 

1st Mysore war - 1767-69 - Haider Ali won and British lost

French failed to establish power in Deccan - The English had a strong army (navy basically).

Pondicherry - French

Goa - Portuguese

Tranqebar - Danish

Sadras - Dutch

Treaty of Allahabad 1765 

Treaty of Madras 1769 - Haider Ali won and British lost

Treaty of Salbai - 1782 - Maratha v British - 

Treaty of Mangalore - 1784 - 2nd Anglo War - Tipu v British 

• Murshid Quli Khan - first governor - introduced system of revenue farming in Bengal

• Maharaja Rnajit singh set up modern foundries to manufacture cannons at Lahore

• Sultan Tipu of Mysore gave money for the construction of the idol of Goddess Sharda in the Shringeri Temple 

• Sawai Jai Singh of Amber had Euclid's Elements of Geometry Translated into Sanskrit. 

-Deindustrialisaiton 

-started in 1813

-Abolotion of monopoly trade rights of EIC aggravated the process

1833 - Saint Helena Act

Contribution by Dadabhai Naorojii (Grand Old Man of India) to the cause of Indian National Movement 

-exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British - poverty and unbritish rule in india, drain of wealth, economic exploitation 

- 1892 - House of Common, elected through Liberal Party from Finsberry, Rastguftar paper written by him 

Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Swami Vivekananda (19th Century People)

-interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self-confidence of Indians

-stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything else

Correctly explains & the impact of industrial revolution on India during the first half of 19th century

-Indian Handicrafts were ruined

History of India

Aurang - Warehouse

Banian - Indian Agent of the EIC

Mirasidar -- designated revenue payer to the State

Drain Theory of Dadabhai Naoroji  

-A part of Indian national wealth or total annual product was being exported to Britain for which India got no material resources.

Economic critic of colonialism in India - Dadabhai Naoroji, G Subramania Iyer, RC Dutt

1917- montague deceleration (self govt)

GoI 1919 - montague chelmford reforms, self govt for. 10 yrs,, after 10 yrs they will set up a commussion, reserved and transfer subjects, reserved and transfer subjects, bicameral legislature, 1916- lucknow pact, rowlatt act - 1919

never joined inc - sir sayyad ahmad

tilak said swaraj is my birthright- 1916 Lucknow session - President by AC Majumdar 

 Moderate + Extremist = Annie Besant 1916 Lucknow Session INC - President by AC Majumdar 

Hindu + Muslim = Jinnah 1916 Lucknow Session INC ( ambassador of Hindu Muslim unity)- President by AC Majumdar 

1905 - baras session - swadeshi word - gokhle president 

1906 - calcutta session - swaraj - dadabhai naoroji

1907 - surat - moderate extremist divided - moderates demanded Ras Bihari Bose to be president extremist demanded Lala Lajpat Rai to be president 

annie besant first to join congress in 1917.- calcutta session 

sarojini naidu first Indian to join inc - kanpur session as chairperson - 1925 

cr das was in jail when president of inc - 1921 session ahmedabad- hakim azmal khan presided then

ao hume was father of inc and not president 

George Yule was first president of inc - allahabad session 1888

Madras session 1894 - Alfred Webb was the president of INC

servants of India society- 1905- gk gokhle

1916-annie beasent ( home rule movement) 

home rule league - self government 

1914 - tilak came from mandalay jail and assume leadership 

education in vernacular language 

two home rule league movements

1. BG Tilak at poona in apr 1916

2. ⁠Annie Beasant at London in June 1916 and madras in Sep 1916

Bg tilak organisation president was Joseph bapista and secretary is nc kelkar

Newspapers

maratha(eng) and kesari(marathi) -tilak

new india and common weal-Annie B

Shyam ji Krishna verma, bhikaji cama set up home rule league society in London in 1905

Lala Lajpat rai statred home rule movement in america (New york) in 1917

Valentine shirole wrote a book Father of Indian Unrest on BG Tilak

Lucknow pact -1916

INC united= moderate + extremists

INC president = AC majumdar

hindu-muslim unity

INC accepted separate electorates 

legislative council For 5 yrs

First Non Cooperation movement-Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

First Civil Disobedience movement - champaran satyagraha (1917) - abolish tinkathia system (problems of indigo planters)

First hunger strike - Ahmedabad mikl strike (1918) - discontinuation of plague bonus - demanded 35% hike in workers wages

Jallianwala Bagh massacare -1919 apr 13

the governor of Punjab, Michael of Dwyer supported the massacare.He was shotdead by udham singh in london in 1940 .

RN tagore renounced knighthood title

Gandhi ji renounced kesari hind title

Montague(secretary of state) chelmsford(governor general) reforms -1919

responsible Government 

Magna Carta of India

Diarchy introduced 

reserved lists- finance,law andorder, irrigation etc

transfer lists - education, health, public works etc

size of legislative assembly increased with 70% of the members being elected

1919-22 Khilafat Movement 

maulana mohammed ali and shaukat ali jauhar (jauhar brothers)

maulana abul kalam azad , mukhtar ansari

Gulamgiri - Jyotiba Phule.

Kavya phule - Savitribai Phule.

Sarvajanik Satyadharma - Jyotiba Phule.

Lokvibahaga - Jain cosmological text. Contains oldest known mention of zero and the decimal system.

Sultana's Dream - Begum Rokeya. A feminist utopian novel. 1910s

Kathasaritasagara - Somadeva. Shaivaite who collected Indian legends.

Swapnavasavadatta - Vasavadatta. Sanskrit play in 6 parts.

Brahmaguptsidhantika - Brahmagupta. Introduced negative numbers and operations on zero.

Rajatarangini - Kalhana. History of Kings of Kashmir. 12th century.

Harshacharita - Banabhatta

Kadambari - Banabhatta. Sanskrit prose.

Ratnavali - Harshavardhana. About a princess named Ratnavali. Contains the first textual reference to Holi.

Priyadarsika - Harshavardhana.

Nagananda - Harshavardhana. Jimutavahana's self sacrifice to save the nagas.

Amuktamulyada - Krishnadeva Raya. Epic Poem in Telugu. Extolling the ideal king. About the marriage of said king with Andal (the alvar poetess)

Jambavati Kalyana - Krishnadeva Raya. Writtening in sanzkrit.

Mudrarakshasa - Vishakhadatta. Rise of CGM.

Buddhacharita - Asvaghosa. 4th Buddhist Council.

Kamasutra - Vatsyayana

Charakasamhita - Botany and Chemistry. Charaka was at the court of Kanishka. (Charak period 100 BCE - 150 AD)

Sushrutasamhita - Sushruta. Surgery

Ashtangsamagraha - Vagbhata. Summary of 8 branches of medicine. Last of the medical trio.

Tolkappiyam - Tolkappiyar. Grammar and poetics

Tirukkural - Thiruvalluvar. Philosophy and maxims.

Divya Prabandham - Collection of Alvar hymns a.k.a. Tamil Veda.

Tirumurai - Collection of Nayanar hymns.

Silappadikaram - Illango Adigal. Story of Kannagi and Kovalan #1 of Panchkavyams. First mention of puppetry.

Manimegalai - Sittalai Sattanar. Story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi #2

Sivaka Chintamani/Mannul - Jain religious epic in Tamil #3

Valayapathi - Jain religious epic in Tamil #4

Kundalakesi - Buddhist religious epic in Tamil #5

Brihatsamhita - Varamihira. 500CE Astronomical text.

Ashtadhyayi - Panini. Sanskrit grammar.

Varrtika - Katyayana. Explained Panini's work.

Yogasutra - Patanjali. Yoga school of philosophy.

Mahabhasya - Patanjali. Sanskrit grammar, based on Katyayana and Panini's works.

Mricchakatika - Sudraka. Story of Charudatta and Vasantasena.

Barnaparichay - Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. Bengali grammar.

Milindapanho - Buddhist literature. Conversations of Nagasena and Bactrian King Milinda.

Kavirajamarga - Amoghavarsha. Kannada. Rashtrakuta Emperor. 7th century CE. Ashoka of the South.

Prashnottara Ratnamalika - Amoghavarsha. Sanskrit.

Kitab-e-Navras - Adil Shah II. Songs in praise of Hindu deities and Muslim saints.

Prayag prashasti - Harisena. Court poet of Samudragupta in sanskrit.

Junagarh inscription - Rudradaman. 2nd century CE. Earliest written sanskrit.

Tuzk-i-Jahangiri - Jahangir. Autobiography.

Padshanama - Abdul Hamid Lahori. Reign of Shah Jahan.

Alamgirnama - Mirza Muhammad Kazim.

Ain-i-Akbari - Abul Fazl

Stree purush tulna - Tarabai Shinde

Sattasai - Hala. Prakrit lit of 700 verses.

Dipavamsa + Mahavamsa - Buddhist chronicles from Ceylon

Bharatvenba - Nandivarman II. Translation of Mahabharata.

Tarikh i Firoz Shahi - Barani

Khazain al Futuh - Khusrau. Alaudin Khilji's conquests.

Tughlaq Nama - Khusrau, Rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Kitab ul Hind - Al Beruni

Hathigumpha inscription - Kharavela of Kalinga's inscription from 1st century BCE.

Dhauli inscriptions of Asoka - have an elephant carved at the back. Near Bhubaneshwar

Nashik inscription - Gotamiputra Satakarani's exploits by his mom.

Rabatak inscription - Kanishka's time.

Pugalur inscription - Refers to three generation of Chera rulers. 1st Century CE.

Allahabad pillar inscription - Sumdragupta's conquests of Southern kingdoms.

Aihole inscription - Pulakesin II defeats Harsha.

Srirangam Copper Plate inscriptions - Devaraya II of Vijayanagara.

Iron pillar inscription - Chandragupta II.

Book – Authors

Astadhyayi – Panini 

Mahabhasya – Patanjali

Nagananda – Harshvardhana 

Naishadhacharita – Sri Harsha

Mrichhakatika – Sudraka 

Gitagovinda – Jayadev

Navratna – Virsena

Mudrarakshasa – Visakdatta

Rajtarngini – Kalhana 

Kathasaritsagar – Somdeva

Kamasutra – Vatsayana

Prashnottarmalika – Amoghavarsha

Swapanvasdattam – Bhasa

Buddha Charita – Asvaghosa

Natyashastra – Bharata

Abhigyan Shakuntalam – Kalidasa

Vikramorvashi – Kalidasa

Raghuvansan – Kalidasa

Amarkosa – Amarshmha

Panchsidhantika and Brihat Samhita – Varharmihara 

Kumarsambhava – Kalidas

Kulliyat  - Ghalib

Kitni Navo Men Kitni Bar – SH Vatsyayan

Kital ul Hind – Al Beruni

Kayar – Thakazhi Sivvasankara Pillai

Kashmr : A Tragedy of Errors – Tavleen Singh

Kashmir: A Tale of Shame – Hari Jai Singh

Karmabhumi – Munsi Premchand

Kapala Kundala – Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Kanthapura – Raja Rao

Kamasutra – SH Vatsyayan

Kagaz Te Kanwas – Amrita Pritam

Kadambari – Bana Bhatt

Jhansi Ki Rani – Vrindavanlai Verma

Geet Govind – Jayadev

Jai Somnath – KM Munshi 

Its always possible – Kiran Bedi 

Interpreter of Maldives – Jhumpa Lahiri

Inscrutable Americans – Anurag Mathur

Indira Gandhi : Badhate Kadam – Khushwant Singh

Indira Gandhi Returns – Khushwant Singh

Indian Philosophy – Dr S Radhakrishnan

Amarakosha – Amarasimha

Prashnottarmalika – Amoghavarsha

Surya Sidhanta & Aryabhatta – Aryabhatta

Buddhacharita – Asvaghosha

Suandarananda – Asvaghosha

Vajrasuchi – Asvaghosha

Harsh Charita – Banabhatta

Kadambari – Banabhatta

Natyashastra – Bharata

Swapanvasdattam – Bhasa

Lilawati – Bhaskara II

Siddhanta Shiromani (04 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grihaganita & Gola – Astronomy) – Bhaskaracharya

Ravan Vadha – Bhattin

Uttarama Charita – Bhavbhuti

Malati Madhava – Bhavbhuti

Saraswati Kanthabharana – Bhoja

Vikramanakadeva Charita – Bilhana

Karnasundari – Bilhana

Bhoja Prabandha – Billal

Brahmasiddhanta Khandakhya – Brahmagupta

Prithviraj Raso – Chand Bardai

Charaka Samhita – Charaka

Dasakumaracharita – Dandin

Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) - Devabhadra

PRELIMS SYLLABUS

1. Current events of national and international importance

2. History of India and Indian National Movement

3. Indian and World Geography - Physical, social, economic geography of India and the world.

4. Indian polity and governance - constitution, political system, panchayati raj, public policy, rights issues etc.

5. economic and social development - sustainable development, poverty, inclusion, demographics, social sector initiatives etc

6. general issues on environmental ecology, bio-diversity and climate change - that do not require subject specialisation

7. general science.

MAINS SYLLABUS

GS Paper 1 - (Indian Heritage and Culture, History and Geography of the World and Society)

Indian Culture - Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Modern Indian History from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues.

The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from different parts of the country.

Post-independence Consolidation and Reorganization within the country.

History of the World will include events from 18th century such as Industrial Revolution, world wars, Redrawal of National Boundaries, Colonization, Decolonization, political philosophies like Communism, Capitalism, Socialism etc.— their forms and effect on the society.

Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.

Role of Women and Women’s Organization, Population and Associated Issues, Poverty and Developmental issues, Urbanization, their problems and their remedies.

Effects of Globalization on Indian society.

Social Empowerment, Communalism, Regionalism & Secularism.

Salient features of World’s Physical Geography.

Distribution of Key Natural Resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent); factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India).

Important Geophysical Phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

GS Paper 2 - (Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International Relations)

Indian Constitution—Historical Underpinnings, Evolution, Features, Amendments, Significant Provisions and Basic Structure.

Functions and Responsibilities of the Union and the States, Issues and Challenges Pertaining to the Federal Structure, Devolution of Powers and Finances up to Local Levels and Challenges Therein.

Separation of Powers between various organs Dispute Redressal Mechanisms and Institutions.

Comparison of the Indian Constitutional Scheme with that of Other Countries.

Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, Functioning, Conduct of Business, Powers & Privileges and Issues Arising out of these.

Structure, Organization and Functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government; Pressure Groups and Formal/Informal Associations and their Role in the Polity.

Salient Features of the Representation of People’s Act.

Appointment to various Constitutional Posts, Powers, Functions and Responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.

Statutory, Regulatory and various Quasi-judicial Bodies.

Government Policies and Interventions for Development in various sectors and Issues arising out of their Design and Implementation.

Development Processes and the Development Industry — the Role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders.

Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections of the population by the Centre and States and the Performance of these Schemes; Mechanisms, Laws, Institutions and Bodies constituted for the Protection and Betterment of these Vulnerable Sections.

Issues Relating to Development and Management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

Issues relating to Poverty and Hunger.

Important Aspects of Governance, Transparency and Accountability, E-governance- applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; Citizens Charters, Transparency & Accountability and institutional and other measures.

Role of Civil Services in a Democracy.

India and its Neighborhood- Relations.

Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and Agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

Effect of Policies and Politics of Developed and Developing Countries on India’s interests, Indian Diaspora.

Important International Institutions, agencies and fora - their Structure, Mandate.

GS Paper 3 - (Technology, Economic Development, Bio-diversity, Environment, Security and Disaster Management)

Indian Economy and issues relating to Planning, Mobilization of Resources, Growth, Development and Employment.

Inclusive Growth and issues arising from it.

Government Budgeting.

Major Crops - Cropping Patterns in various parts of the country, - Different Types of Irrigation and Irrigation Systems; Storage, Transport and Marketing of Agricultural Produce and Issues and Related Constraints; E-technology in the aid of farmers.

Issues related to Direct and Indirect Farm Subsidies and Minimum Support Prices; Public Distribution System - Objectives, Functioning, Limitations, Revamping; Issues of Buffer Stocks and Food Security; Technology Missions; Economics of Animal-Rearing.

Food Processing and Related Industries in India- Scope’ and Significance, Location, Upstream and Downstream Requirements, Supply Chain Management.

Land Reforms in India.

Effects of Liberalization on the Economy, Changes in Industrial Policy and their Effects on Industrial Growth.

Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

Investment Models.

Science and Technology- Developments and their Applications and Effects in Everyday Life.

Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology; Indigenization of Technology and Developing New Technology.

Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

Disaster and Disaster Management.

Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism.

Role of External State and Non-state Actors in creating challenges to Internal Security.

Challenges to Internal Security through Communication Networks, Role of Media and Social Networking Sites in Internal Security Challenges, Basics of Cyber Security; Money-Laundering and its prevention.

Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas - Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism.

Various Security Forces and Agencies and their Mandate.

GS Paper - IV Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude

This paper will include questions to test the candidates’ attitude and approach to issues relating to integrity, probity in public life and his problem solving approach to various issues and conflicts faced by him in dealing with society. Questions may utilise the case study approach to determine these aspects. The following broad areas will be covered:

Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, Determinants and Consequences of Ethics in - Human Actions; Dimensions of Ethics; Ethics - in Private and Public Relationships. Human Values - Lessons from the Lives and Teachings of Great Leaders, Reformers and Administrators; Role of Family Society and Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values.

Attitude: Content, Structure, Function; its Influence and Relation with Thought and Behaviour; Moral and Political Attitudes; Social Influence and Persuasion.

Aptitude and Foundational Values for Civil Service, Integrity, Impartiality and Non-partisanship, Objectivity, Dedication to Public Service, Empathy, Tolerance and Compassion towards the weaker-sections.

Emotional Intelligence-Concepts, and their Utilities and Application in Administration and Governance.

Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India and World.

Public/Civil Service Values and Ethics in Public Administration: Status and Problems; Ethical Concerns and Dilemmas in Government and Private Institutions; Laws, Rules, Regulations and Conscience as Sources of Ethical Guidance; Accountability and Ethical Governance; Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance; Ethical Issues in International Relations and Funding; Corporate Governance.

Probity in Governance: Concept of Public Service; Philosophical Basis of Governance and Probity; Information Sharing and Transparency in Government, Right to Information, Codes of Ethics, Codes of Conduct, Citizen’s Charters, Work Culture, Quality of Service Delivery, Utilization of Public Funds, Challenges of Corruption.

Case Studies on above issues.

Reports published by International Organisations

World Meteorological Organisation - State of World Climate

Food and Agriculture Organisation - State of the World Reports

Universal Postal Union (UPU) - Postal Development Report

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) - Rural Development Report

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Human Development Report

ILO - World Social Protection Report, Global Wage Report, World Employment and Social Outlook, World of Work Report

US Based International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhife (WHH) - Global Hunger Index Report

ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation) - Safety Reports

IBRD (World Bank) - Ease of Doing Business, World Development Report

Fortune - Change the World List Data

WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation) - World Intellectual Property Report (WIPR)

WWF (World Wildlife Fund) - The Energy Report, Living Planet Report

FATF (Financial Action Task Force) - Global Money Laundering Report

BIS (Bank for International Settlements) - Global Financial System Report

Asian Development Bank - ADB - Asian Development Outlook

IMF (International Monetary Fund) - World Economic Outlook, Global Financial Stability Report

International Atomic Energy Agency - Nuclear Technology Review, Technical Cooperation Report

Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) - World Happiness Report

OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) - OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, World Oil Outlook

International Energy Agency - Workd Energy Outlook (WEO), Southeast Asia Energy Outlook

World Economic Forum - Global Competitiveness Report (GCR), Global Gender Gap Report, Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, Global Information Technology Report

UNICRI (United Nationas Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute) - Reports on Counterfeiting and Organised Crime

UNHCR (United National High Commissioner for Refugees) - The Global Report

UNICEF (United Nationas Children's Emergency Fund) - Report on Regular Resources, The State of the World's Children Reports, 

UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organisation) - Industrial Development Report 

UNDRR ( United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction) - Global Assessment Report

UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) - Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, World Drug Report, World Wildlife Crime Report

UN Habitat - World Cities Report

UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) - State of World Population

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) - Global Education Monitoring Report

UNEP & INTERPOL - The rise of environmental Crime 

Transparency International - Global Corruption Report - Corruption Perception Index

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) - Global Environment Outlook, Actions on Air Quality, Emissions Gap Report

UNCTAD - World Investment Report

UNICEF - Levels and trend in child mortality report

Oxfam International - Global Inequality crisis report, inequality virus report, 

IQ Air - World Air Quality Report

World Health Organisation - Global Nutrition Report

INDIA

HISTORY

Ancient India, Medieval India, Art & Culture, and Modern India.

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Vedic Period

Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period

Buddhism

Jainism

Mahajanapadas

Mauryan Period

Kushan Empire

Indo-Greek Rule

Gupta Empire

Indus Valley Civilization / Harappan Civilization / Indus Civilization (part of Proto-history), was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of South Asia. The Indus Valley Civilization IVC lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Together with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilizations of the Near East and South Asia, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area stretching from today’s northeast Afghanistan through much of Pakistan and into western and northwestern India.

The Indus Valley Civilization, or Harappan Civilisation, was the first urban civilization in South Asia. It can be concluded that the history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).

#The Indus civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization after its first site was excavated in what was then the Punjab province of British India and is now in Pakistan. The Indus Civilization was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.

#The IVC flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, along with a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

#The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, as Harappa was the first and the most important site of the Indus Valley Civilization.

#Indus Valley Civilization in Hindi is called the Sindhu Ghati Sabhyata or Sindhu Civilization

#The first sites to be discovered were Harappa (discovered by Dr. D.R. Sahani in the year 1921) on the banks of the river Ravi and Mohanjodaro (in 1922 by R.D. Banerjee) on the banks of the river Indus. Sir John Marshall played an important role in both excavations.

Harappa = Ravi

Mohanjodaro = Indus

#Indus Valley Civilization forms part of the Protohistory of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.

#The use of Gold, Silver, Copper and Bronze was there, but the use of Iron was completely unknown.

#The port cities of the Indus Civilization are Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi.

Harappan Civilization

The discovery of Harappa and soon after Mohenjodaro was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj. Sir John Marshall first unearthed Harappan Civilization in 1921. As Harappas was the first site to be discovered, the IVC is also called the Harappan Civilization.

Nevertheless, there were earlier, and later cultures in the same area often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan.

There are five major urban sites, the most important being: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi.

Phases of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization is divided into three phases. They are more appropriately named as per Harappan Civilization.

Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BCE): This phase of IVC is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley, with the earliest examples of the Indus script. This phase is characterized by a centralized authority, urban quality of life, established trade networks and cultivation of crops.

Mature Harappan Phase (2600 to 1900 BCE): The second phase of the Indus Valley Civilization is characterized by Kot Diji. The early Harappan communities were turned into large urban centers, like Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day India.

Late Harappan Phase (1900 to 1300 BCE): It signifies the gradual decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. However, archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.

Architecture and Town Planning of Harappan Civilization was the most striking feature of the Indus valley civilization. The town planning of the Indus Valley Civilization proves that the IVC people lived a highly civilized and developed life.

The people of IVC were the first to build planned cities with a scientific drainage system.

For architecture, it can be said that the Indus cities were built on a uniform plan and the town planning was amazing in nature.

Life in the Indus Valley Civilization gives the impression of a democratic bourgeois economy like that of ancient Crete.

# The streets of IVC were 13 to 34 feet wide and were well lined, straight and cut each other at right angles. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks. The presence of dustbins proves the presence of good municipal administration. Archaeologists have also discovered the lamp posts at intervals, which suggests the existence of street lights.

#Drainage system - The cities of the Indus valley civilization were provided with an excellent closed drainage system. Brick-laid channels flowed through every street.

Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to the public drainage.

They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes.

The people of IVC had a perfect underground drainage system.

Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and the recently partially-excavated Rakhigarhi demonstrate the world’s first known urban sanitation systems.

#Granaries of Indus Civilization

They constituted an important part of the Harappan cities and the Indus Valley Civilization. The largest building in Mohenjodaro was the granary which was 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide.

In Harappan Civilization, there were a series of brick platforms that formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each.

These granaries safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue or storehouses to be used in emergencies.

In the Southern part of Kalibangan, brick platforms have also been found, which is an important feature of the Indus Valley Civilization.

#Architecture and Buildings of the Indus Valley Civilization

The houses and other buildings were built on the side of roads by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The houses of the IVC were terraced houses made up of burnt bricks. Standardized burnt bricks of ratio 1:2:4 were found in all the sites. No stones were used.

Every house had two or more rooms. There were also more than one-storied houses.

The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained pillared halls, bathrooms, paved floors, kitchens, well etc.

There was an excellent system of water supply which was verified by public wells by the side of the streets. Every big house had its own well.

The workmen’s quarters are also found. The quality of urban planning suggests efficient municipal governments that placed a high priority on hygiene or religious ritual.

Harappan Civilization demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. They also built a dockyard at Lothal.

#The Great Bath of the Indus Valley Civilization

The most striking feature in Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath, which is a large quadrangle structure.

In the center is a huge swimming pool with the remains of galleries and rooms on all four sides.

The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. The water was discharged by a huge drain with a corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth.

There were arrangements for a hot water bath in some rooms.

Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions where water was used to purify and renew the well-being of the bathers.

#Characteristic features of Harappan cities

There was great uniformity in Harappan town planning. Town planning was based on a grid pattern or chessboard pattern. Streets and lanes intersect at right angles, creating a number of rectangular blocks in the city. The entire city was divided into two major areas; The Citadel and Lower Town.

The Citadel was a fortified area with vital public buildings, including granaries and dwellings for the ruling class. The lower town was larger and lay east of the Citadel.

The lower town was intended for the common public, while the Citadel and the lower town were separated by an area of ground.

#Agricultural Pattern of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. The villages of the Harappan Civilization were situated mostly near the flood plains and produced sufficient foodgrains, such as wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard.

Millets were found at sites in Gujarat. Animals were also reared on a large scale.

Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for plowing.

The IVC also developed some new tools known as plough which was used to dig earth for planting the seeds and turning the soil. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.

# Economy during Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization was a prosperous civilization. The economy of IVC was largely based on agriculture and animal husbandry, supplemented by the exploitation of natural and wild resources.

The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area.

The Harappans carried on a considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money was not used and a barter system carried trade.

# Agricultural economy

The main crops produced were Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Mustard, and Cotton. The use of wooden ploughshare, well irrigation, dams, and irrigation canals shows the advancement of Harappans in agriculture technology.

The Indus people set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan, which facilitated trade with Central Asia.

They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.

# Manufacturing in IVC

A large number of terracotta articles show that it was used by common people. Harappans were the first to use silver in the world, and the people did not use iron but used Copper, bronze, silver, and gold. Owing to this, the Harappan people were good at metallurgy and producing alloys. The Indus Valley people were an expert in bead-making jewelry.

# Pottery

The Harappans used Red and Black pottery (redware painted with black designs) and also knew the use of Potter’s wheel with ease. It shows the expertise of Harappans in pottery making e.g., Glazed pottery, incised pottery, perforated pottery, etc. Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.

# Trade in Indus Valley Civilization

Harappans had trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan Makan (Oman), and Dilmun (Bahrain). Trade in the Indus Valley Civilization was through the barter system.

Trade shows the advanced trade relation of the Harappan civilization with other parts of India as well as also with other contemporary civilizations.

Export items included Teak ( obtained from Gujrat), Amazonite (Hirapuri, GJ), Slate (Kangra), Lead (Kashmir and South India), and Copper (from Baluchistan).

The import items include Jade (from Central Asia), Turquoise (from Khorasan), Lapis Lazuli, Gold, Silver, and Tin ( from Afghanistan), Gold was also obtained from Iran and Kolar mines in Karnataka and Steatite (Iran).

# Weights and Measures

The weights followed a binary system of 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on. Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and were generally cubical. The standardization and accuracy of weights and measures throughout the IVC were remarkable.

# Seals

Harappan seals are the greatest artistic creation and were used to mark ownership of property and in trade. They were made up of Steatite (soft stone) and were half an inch to 2.5 inches. The seals were generally square and rectangular, with carved animals and inscriptions. The humpless bull is the most used animal in seals.

# Religion during Indus Valley Civilization

In Harappa, numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshiped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshiped the Nile goddess Isis.

The male deity is represented on a seal with three-horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The depicted god is identified as Pashupati Mahadeva. T

The people of the Indus Valley Civilization also worshiped trees and animals.

The most important of them is the one-horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros, and the next important was the humped bull.

The absence of any palace or temple despite structures like granaries and public baths led historians to believe that the Indus Valley society was an egalitarian one.

# Major sites of IVC 

Harappa - Daya Ram Sahani - in 1921

Mohenjo Daro - RD Banerjee - in 1922

Amri - MG Majumdar - in 1929

Chanhudaro - MG Majumdar - in 1931

Rangpur - MS Vats - in 1931

Ropar - YD Sharma - 1953

Kalibanga - Amlanand Ghosh - in 1953

Lothal - SR Rao - in 1957

Surkotada - Jagat Pal Joshi - in 1964

Dholavira - Jagat Pal Joshi - in 1967

Banwali - RS Bisht - in 1973

Rangpur - MS Vats - in 1931

# Important Sites and Findings of Indus Valley Civilization

In the 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.

-In 1924, John Marshall, the then Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of the Indus valley to the world.

-Over 1400 Indus Valley Civilization sites have been discovered, of which 925 sites are in India and 475 sites in Pakistan, while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies.

#Harappa 

excavated by - Daya Ram Sahni in 1921

Location of IVC sites - Situated on the bank of river ravi in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan).

important findings - Granaries, bullock carts and sandstone statues of Human anatomy

#Mohenjodaro (aka Mound of Dead) 

excavated by - RD Banerjee in 1922.

Location of IVC sites - situated on the bank of river indus in the Larkana District of Punjab (Pakistan).

important findings - Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva, Bronze dancing girl, Great Bath, Granary, Steatite statue of beard man and a piece of woven cotton.

#Sutkagendor 

excavated by - Stein in 1929

Location of IVC sites - In southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan, on Dast River

important findings - Trade point between Harappa and Babylon

#Chanhudaro 

excavated by - NG Majumdar in 1931

Location of IVC sites - Sindh on the Indus river

important findings - Bead makers shop and footprint of a dog chasing a cat.

#Amri 

excavated by - NG Majumdar in 1935

Location of IVC sites - On the bank of the Indus river.

important findings - Antelope evidence.

#Kalibangan

excavated by - Ghose in 1953

Location of IVC sites - Rajasthan on the bank of Ghaggar river.

important findings - Wooden plough, Fire altar and Camel's bones.

#Lothal 

excavated by - R Rao in 1953

Location of IVC sites - Gujarat on the Bhogva river near the Gulf of Cambay 

important findings -Dockyard, First manmade port, Rice husk, Fire altars and Chess playing.

#Surkotada 

excavated by - JP Joshi in 1964

Location of IVC sites - Gujarat

important findings - Bead and Bones of horses

#Banawali 

excavated by - RS Bisht in 1974

Location of IVC sites - Hisar District of Haryana 

important findings -Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan Culture Beads and Barley

#Dholavira 

excavated by - RS Bisht in 1985

Location of IVC sites - Gujarat in Rann of Kutch

important findings -Water harnessing system and Water Reservoir

IVC – Harappan and Mesopotamian Civilizations

The difference between Harappan and Mesopotamian Civilizations are listed below:

# Decline 

Harappan - Declined after 1900 BCE.

Mesopotamian / Egyptian - Both civilisations continued to exist even after 1900 BCE.  

# Extent of civilisation 

- Harappan - Spread was 20 times that of Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilisation

- Mesopotamian / Egyptian -  Less area as compared to IVC

# Script 

- Harappan - Invented their own typical pictographic script

- Mesopotamia / Egyptian - it has a cuneiform script and the Egyptian script is known as hieroglyphics. Both scripts have been deciphered.

# Writing Material 

-IVC - The majority of the Script has been found on the seals.

-Mesopotamian / Egyptian - The majority of the Mesopotamian script was found on clay tablets, while Egyptians wrote on papyrus sheets made of reeds.

#Weapons 

IVC - No clear evidence of war or weapons

Mesopotamian / Egyptian - Clear evidence of wars and expeditions in the other two civilisations 

#Religion

IVC - No temples or religious structure have been found 

Mesopotamian / Egyptian - Had elaborate religious practices, magic spells, and the dominance of priests.

#Urban planning

-IVC - Planned towns with a grid - like pattern 

-Mesopotamian / Egyptian - Towns show haphazard growth.

#Building Material

-IVC - Burnt Bricks

-Egyptians / Mesopotamian - Egyptians used dried bricks, whereas Mesopotamians use baked bricks.

# Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

-The Indus Valley Civilization declined around 1800 BCE. The reasons behind the demise of Civilization are still debated.

-Many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization was caused by climate change.

-Some experts believe the drying of the Saraswati River, which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause of climate change, while others conclude that a great flood struck the area.

-Many scholars argue that changes in river patterns caused the large civilization to break up into smaller communities called late Harappan cultures.

-Another disastrous change in the Harappan climate might have been eastward-moving monsoons or winds that bring heavy rains.

GEOGRAPHY

* India situated north of the equator between 8*4'N to 37*6'N latitude and 68*7' E to 97* 25' E longitude.

* Seventh largest country in the world, with a total area of 32,87,263 sq km (12,69,219 sq miles).

* India measures 3214 km (1997 miles) from N to S and 2993 km (1822 miles) from E to W.

* India has land frontier of 15,200 km (9445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.6km (4671 miles). 

* In south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean - in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean - South.

* The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some 125 km (78 miles) to the south of India's Lakshadweep Islands across the 8 degree channel.

- 8 degree channel # separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives

- 9 degree channel # separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island

- 10 degree channel # separates from Andamans from Nicobar (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)

- India's Andaman & Nicobar Islands, some 1200 km (750miles) southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. 

- The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E)  is just south of Kanyakumari, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. 

-The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier

-India's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8 miles- 22.2km) from the coast of baseline. 

- India has the 18th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 23,05,143 sq km (8,90,021 sq miles)

- The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. 

- Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram and Western Himalayan ranges, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes.

-In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. 

-On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

Continent - Asia / Region - South Asia, Southeast Asia / Coordinate 21°N 78°E / Area - Ranked 7th, - 32,87,263 sq km (12,69,219 sq miles) / Land - 91% / Water - 9%/ Coastline - 7516 km (4670.6 sq miles), / Borders - Total Land Borders - 15200 km (9400miles)/ Bangladesh - 4096.70 km (2545.57 miles) / China (PRC) - 3488 km (2167 miles) / Pakistan - 3323 km (2065 miles) / Nepal - 1751 km (1088 miles)/ Myanmar - 1643 km (1021 miles) / Bhutan - 699 km (434 miles)

- Highest point - Kangchenjunga 8586 m (28169 ft) / 

-Lowest Point - Kuttanad - 2.2 m (7.2 ft) / 

-Longest river - Ganges 2525 km (1569 miles) / 

-Largest lake - Loktak Late (freshwater) 287 sq km (111 sq miles) to 500 sq km (190 sq miles) - Chilika Lake (brackish water) - 1100 sq km (420 sq miles) / 

-]Exclusive Economic Zone - 23,05,143 sq km (8,90,021 sq miles)

- The Ganges is the longest river originating in India.

- The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central and eastern India while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India.

- Kangchenjunga, in the Indian State of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8586 m (28169 ft) and the world's third highest peak. 

- The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper regions of the Himalayas. 

- Geologically, India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate.

- India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea).

-The Indo-Australian Plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian Plates. 

- About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/ year (6 inches/ year). 

-About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2000 to 3000 km (1243 to 1864 miles), having moved faster than any other known plate

-In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. 

-The Collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. 

-As of 2009, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/ year (2 inches/ year), while the Eurasian plate is moving north at only 2 cm / year (0.8 inches / year). 

-India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent". This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm / year (1.6 in / year).

--Cratons are a specific kind of continental crust made up of a top layer called platform and an older layer called basement. A shield is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by plate tectonics. 

-The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such: - Aravalli Craton/ Bundelkhand Craton/ Dharwar Craton/ Singhbhum Craton / Bastar Craton 

-Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton) - Covers Rajasthan as well as western and southern Haryana. It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by the Great Boundary Fault in the east, sandy Thar Desert in the Thar Desert in the west, Indo-Gangetic Alluvium in the North, Son-Narmada-Tapti in the South. It mainly has quartzite, marble, pelite, greywacke and extinct volcanos exposed in Aravalli-Delhi Orogen. Malani Igneous Suite is the largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world. 

-Bundelkhand Craton, covers 26,000 sq km in the Bundelkhand region of UP, MP and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau. It is limited by the Aravalli in the west. Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gangetic alluvium in the north. It is similar to the Aravalli Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution of Hindoli and Mahakoshal belts at the margins of two cratons.

-Dharwar Craton (Karnataka Craton), 3.4-2.6 Ga, granite-greenstone terrain covers the state of Karnataka and parts of eastern and southern Maharashtra state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).

-Singhbhum Craton 4000 sq km area which primarily covers Jharkhand as well as parts of Odisha, Northern Andhra Pradesh, Northern Telangana and Eastern Maharashtra. It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the North, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east. 

-Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton) primarily covers Chhattisgarh and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga old TTG gneisses of five types. It is subdivided into Kotri-Dongagarh Orogen and the Rest of Bastar Craton. It is limited by three rifts, Godavari rift in southwest, Narmada rift in northwest and Mahanadi rift in northeast.

-Regions - India can be divided into six physiographic regions - 

Northern Mountains - Himalayas 

Peninsular Plateau 

Indo-Gangetic Plain or Northern Plains 

Thar Desert

Coastal Plains - Eastern Ghat folds and Western Ghats folds

Islands - The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands

Himalayas - An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Patkai ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. 

-These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates. 

-The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. 

-They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. 

-They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India.

-Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains.

- These mountains form the boundary between two biogeographic realms: - The temperate Palearctic realm that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalayan realm which includes South Asia, Southeast Asia and Indonesia. 

- The Himalayas in India extend from Ladakh in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east.

- Several Himalayan peaks in India rise above 7000m (23000ft) including Kangchenjunga 8598m (28209ft) on the Sikkim-Nepal border and Nanda Devi 7816m (25643 ft) in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttrakhand. 

-The Snow line ranges between 6000 m (20000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3000m (9800ft) in Ladakh. 

-The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. 

-Thus, northern India is kept warm or only midly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.

- The Karakoram range runs through Ladakh. The range is about 500 km (310 miles) in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions.

-The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 miles) ranks as the world's second longest glacier outside the polar regions. 

-The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.

-The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma. 

-They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. 

-The physical features of the Patkai (Purvanchal) mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. 

-The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. 

-There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai - The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and the Lushai Hills.

-The Garo-Khasi range lies in Meghalaya.

-Mawsynram, a village near Cheerapunji lying lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.

The Peninsular Plateau: - 

-Craton meaning a large stable block of the earth's crust forming the nucleus of a continent.

- The main features of Indian Craton are: 

- Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left)

- Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km (500 miles). 

-The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. 

-The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722 m (5650 ft), lying near the border with Gujarat. 

-The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of the ancient fold mountain system. 

-The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali - Delhi orogen. 

- The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.

- Vindhya Range - lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending 1050 km (650 miles). 

-The average elevation of these hills is from 300 m to 600 m (980 ft to 1970 ft) and rarely goes above 700 m (2300 ft). 

-They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains. 

- Geographically, it separates Northern India from Southern India. 

- Western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.

- Satpura Range, lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravalli range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. 

-It extends 900 km (560 mi) with many peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).

-It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers.

-It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east–west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.

Plateaus: -

-Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. 

-The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. 

-Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Mahi River.

-Chhota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. 

-Its total area is approximately 65,000 sq km (25,000 sq mi) and is made up of three smaller plateaus—the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. 

-The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. 

-Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. 

-The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. 

-The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion.

-Southern Garanulite terrain: Covers South India especially Tamil Nadu excluding western and eastern ghats.

-Deccan Plateau, also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. -

-The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million sq km (735,000-mile2). 

-It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft). 

-The average elevation of the plateau is 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. 

-The surface slopes from 3,000 feet (910 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (460 m) in the east.

- It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi which drain into the Bay of Bengal. 

-This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. 

-Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. 

-Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.

-Kutch Kathiawar plateau is located in Gujarat state.

Ghats

- Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. 

-Sahyadri in Maharashtra / - Nilgiri in Karnataka & Tamil Nadu / - Anaimalai Hills and Cardamom Hills in Kerala.

-Western Ghats are continuous without any major breaks, hence it is very difficult to pass through them.

-Bhor ghat, Pal ghat, and Thal ghat are the passes through western ghats.

-Most of peninsular rivers drain into Bay of Bengal, their origin point is the western ghats.

-Tungabhadra, Krishna, Godavari have their origin point in the western ghats.

-It must be noted that the western ghats of India play a very important role in the distribution of the monsoon rainfall on the western border of India.

-It causes the orographic rainfall due to which the windward side of the mountains receives a lot of rainfall, however, the leeward side remains dry.

-The western ghats consist of evergreen forests too, however, the main crop grown there is the Coffee.

-Anaimudi is the highest peak of the peninsular plateau and is located on the Anaimalai Hills of the Western Ghats.

-The highest peak in the Western Ghats is Anaimudi and its elevation is 2695 meters or 8842 ft. 

-It is known as Everest of South India. The name Anaimudi translates as Elephant’s head. It is located at the border of Ernakulam and Idukki District of Kerala.

-The range runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. 

-The average elevation is around 1,500 m (3,300 ft).

-Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.

-These mountains extend from West Bengal to Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and parallel to the Bay of Bengal. 

-Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.

-The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. 

-Sitamma Konda or Jindhagada peak or Arma Konda (1,690 m (5,540 ft)) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats.

- Main crop produced in the eastern ghats is Rice, which is also the staple food of the people living in the region.

Staple food is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for an individual or a population group.

 Indo-Gangetic plain

-The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. 

-They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, and drain most of northern and eastern India. 

-The plains encompass an area of 700,000  sq km (270,000 sq mi). 

-The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista—as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.

-The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:

-The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. 

-As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 6 and 15 km (3.7 and 9.3 mi).

-The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. 

-The underground streams reappear in this region. 

-The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. 

-It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.

-The Bangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. 

-In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.

-The Khadar belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. -It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

-The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. 

-The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. 

-The area is also rich in ground water sources. 

-The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. 

-Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. 

-The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

Thar Desert

The Thar Desert (also known as the deserts) is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth.

-It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km2 (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi).

-The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. 

-Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.

-About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. 

-Annual temperatures can range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to over 50 °C (122 °F) during the summer. 

-Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to 500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. 

-Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the ground level.

- Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) eastward. 

-The only river in this region is Luni. 

-The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. 

-The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. 

-The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.

-In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. 

-The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.

-The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.

-Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.

Coastal plains and ghats

-The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India.

-It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. 

-The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. 

-The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 °C (86 °F), and is coupled with high levels of humidity. 

-The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains.

- The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. 

-The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. 

-The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. 

-Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). 

-The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi).

-The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.

-The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. 

-It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. 

-Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. 

-Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. 

-Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. 

-Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. 

-The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.

Islands

-The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are classified as union territories.

-The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km2 (12 sq mi). 

-They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.

-The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.

-They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km. 

-They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Burma.

- The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. 

-The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi). 

-India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. 

-It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. 

-Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. 

-The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).

-Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. 

-Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. 

-Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.

Atoll - it is type of an island - it is shaped like a ringh with a lake of salt water (a lagoon) in the middle.

reef - a long line of rocks, plants just below or above the surface of the sea.

Ecological Resources

-India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.

-There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 sq km (976,000 sq mi).

-All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:

-The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges

-Vindhya and Satpura range in central India

-Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

-The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. 

-The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. 

-The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Punjab are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.

-The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi).

-The Ganges Basin alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi).

-The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.

-It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.(The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.

-The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) (or "Tsangpo"). 

-It enters India in the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through Assam. 

-The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the Jamuna River.

-The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. 

-The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapi, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. 

-The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.

(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow)

-The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. 

-Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.

-Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar. 

-Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. 

-Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama's Bridge, and Point Calimere. 

-The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. 

-Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. 

-There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.

- Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.

Wetlands: - 

-India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.

-Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. 

-The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461 km2 (1,722 sq mi), which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. 

-Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. 

-Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.

-The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. 

-It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. 

-The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). 

-The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. 

-The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. 

-Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger. 

-It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

-The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan. 

-It occupies a total area of 27,900 km2 (10,800 sq mi).

-The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. 

-Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. 

-This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. 

-During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. 

-After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

Economic resources: -

Renewable water resources

-India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 a year.

-Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.

-Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.

-About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.

-Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. 

-Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.

Mineral oil

-Most of India's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m3) in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.

-India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.

-Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces"—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)

Minerals and Ores

-India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splitting.

-India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.

-The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. 

-India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore.

-It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium.

-India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.

-India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala.

-Gold had been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.

-Aluminum - Bauxite, Kaolinite

-Iron - Hematite, Magnetite, Siderite, Iron pyrites, Limonite

-Copper - Copper pyrites, Malachite, Cuprite, Copper glance, Azurite

-Zinc - Zinc blend / Sphalerite, Calamine, Zincite

-Calcium - Dolomite, Calcite, Gypsum, Fluorspar, Asbestus

-Strontium - Strontianite, Silestine

-Silver - Ruby silver, Horn Silver

-Gold - Calaverite, Silvenites

-Barium - Barytes

-Mercury - Cinnabar

-Tin - Casseterite

-Lead - Galena

-Antimony - Stilbenite Sb2S3

-Cadmium - Greenocite

-Bismuth - Bismuthite

-Cobalt - Simelite

-Nickel - Milarite

-Manganese - Pyrolusite, Magnite

-Uranium - Carnetite, Pitch Blend, Uraninite

-The process of extracting metal ores buried deep underground is called mining. 

-The metal ores are found in the earth’s crust in varying abundance. The extraction of metals from ores is what allows us to use the minerals in the ground.

-Ores are very different from the finished metals that we see in buildings and bridges. They consist of the desired metal compound and the impurities and earthly substances called gangue.

-Minerals that can profitably be used to get the metal are called ores.

-There are mainly four kinds of ores like Ores Oxides; Ores Carbonate; Sulphide Ores; Ores Halides.

Soil - 

Alluvial - 40% of total area of country, rich in K, poor in P, new - Khadar, old - Bhangar - Rice, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds, Jute, maize, vegetables & fruits.

Black - Deccan Plateau, Deep Black - Regur / Black Cotton Soil, clayey, deep and impermeable, swell and stikcy when wet and shrink when dried, poor in humus, highly moisture - retentive, rich in lime, iron, Mg, Al, K, lack P, N, Organic matter - Cotton, millets, tobacco, sugarcane (Millets include jowar, bajra and ragi), castor, sunflower.

Red - Yellow - develop on igneous rock, in situ soils, reddish due to iron and yellow in hydrated form, fine grained - fertile, coarse grained - poor fertile -Millets, wheat, tobacco, rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, groundnut, potatoes,

Laterite - high temp high rain intense leaching, lime silica leached away, rich in K, FeO & Al, poor in Organic, N, P, Ca. Not suitable for cultivation. But grow cashew, and burnt bricks for construction. -Coffee, rubber, cashewnut, tapioca

Forest Mountain - denudation, acidic with low humus, lower valley are fertile.

Arid Desert - lack moisture humus, poor N, normal K, Kankar present - restricts infiltration of water, irrigation - fertile.

Saline Alkaline - Usara soil, infertile, lack N & Ca, Gujarat, deltas, Gypsum added to solve

Peaty Marshy - heavy rainfall, high humidity, large dead organic, rich humus, northern Bihar, southern Uttarakhand, coastal area of West Bengal, Odisha, TN

Vegetation - 

Tropical Wet Evergreen Vegetation - Lofty, very dense, multilayered forest with mesosphytic evergreens, e.g., bamboos, ebony, rose- wood, champa, toon, jamun, mesa, white cedar, mahogony.

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Vegetation -  Evergreen trees mixed with deciduous ones, less dense but more gregarious e.g., aini, semul, gutel, kadam, irul, thorny bamboo, rosewood, Kusum, hollock bonsum, white cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, bamboos etc.

Tropical Dry Evergreen Vegetation - Short statured trees, with complete canopy, coriaceous leaved trees of short boles, no canopy layer differentiation, e.g., khirmi, jamun, kokko, toddy palm, tarrina, ritha, neem etc.

Tropical Moist Deciduous Vegetation (Also known as monsoon forest) - Trees which shed their leaves during spring & early summer season, very useful forests because they yield valuable timber & several other forest products, heavily buttressed trees, shrubby undergrowth with patches of bamboos, climbers & canes, e.g. sal, teak, sandalwood, siris, palas, mahua, sisam, amia etc.

https://www.studyadda.com/notes/upsc/geography/soil/soil-natural-vegetation-wildlife-and-agriculture-of-india/12944

-Uranium (U-235) atomic no. 92 and Plutonium (Pu-239) is the fuel used in nuclear power plants, 

As U-235 molecules are lighter than the U-238 molecules they move faster and have a slightly better chance of passing through the pores in the membrane.

Isotopic Properties of Uranium

Natural Uranium – contains a 238U concentration of 99.27 percent, 235U concentration of 0.711 percent and very little 234U.

Low Enriched Uranium – contains a 235U concentration between 0.711 percent and 20 percent. Most commercial reactor fuel uses low enriched uranium (LEU) enriched to between 3 percent and 5 percent 235U. Uranium between 3 and 5 percent 235U is sometimes referred to as “reactor-grade uranium.”

Highly Enriched Uranium – contains a 235U concentration greater than 20 percent. Highly enriched uranium (HEU) is used in naval propulsion reactors, nuclear weapons and in some research reactors.

Depleted Uranium – contains a 235U concentration of 0.711 percent or less.  It is a co-product of the enrichment process.

Green hydrogen

- The fuel of the future

- Hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel in transportation, power generation and industrial activities. Does not release greenhouse gases when burnt. 

-Green hydrogen is the name given to hydrogen gas that has been produced using renewable energy, such as wind or solar power, which create no greenhouse gas emissions.

-In a fuel cell - a device that converts chemical energy into electricity and water vapour. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce electricity and water vapour.

-Hydrogen is most abundant in universe. Hydrogen does not naturally exist as a gas in usable quantities, occurring almost entirely in compounds like water. 

- Electrolysis - electric current used to split water into basic components - hydrogen and oxygen.

- Grey hydrogen - hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water using natural gas, hydrogen does not emit greenhouse when burnt, accounts 95% of total production.

- Blue hydrogen - hydrogen produced using electricity generated by burning fossil fuel but paired with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, which trap the carbon emissions released in the process and prevent them from entering the atmosphere.

-Green Hydrogen - hydrogen obtianed through electrolysis powered by renewable electricity, generated through technologies such as solar panels or wind turbines.

-On 4th January 2023, the Union Cabinet approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission with an outlay of ₹ 19,744 crore from FY 2023-24 to FY 2029-30. The overarching objective of the Mission is to make India a global hub for production, usage and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives.

The following components have been announced as part of the Mission:

-Facilitating demand creation through exports and domestic utilization;

-Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) programme, which includes incentives for manufacturing of electrolysers and production of green hydrogen;

-Pilot Projects for steel, mobility, shipping etc.;

-Development of Green Hydrogen Hubs;

-Support for infrastructure development;

-Establishing a robust framework of regulations and standards;

-Research & Development programme;

-Skill development programme; and

-Public awareness and outreach programme.

*The expected outcomes of the Mission, by 2030, are as follows:

-India’s Green Hydrogen production capacity is likely to reach 5 MMT per annum, contributing to reduction in dependence on import of fossil fuels. Achievement of Mission targets is expected to reduce a cumulative ₹ 1 lakh crore worth of fossil fuel imports by 2030.

-Nearly 50 MMT per annum of CO2 emissions are expected to be averted through production and use of the targeted quantum of Green Hydrogen.

https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2023/jan/doc2023110150801.pdf

Tidal ports refers to those ports in which the level of water within port varies with the change of water levels in oceans. 

Mumbai is largest port, Kandla is a tidal port, Marmagao enjoys the second position by value  of the tonnage of the bulk of which is export of Iron ore, Visakhapatnam is the deepest land locked and protected port, Chennai has an international harbour, Kolkata is a riverine port, Haldia is a fully equipped containerized berth.

-India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into districts) and 08 union territories including the National Capital Territory (i.e. Delhi).

-India's borders run a total length of 15,200 km (9400 miles)

-It's borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. 

-Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3323 km (2065 miles) diving the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch 

-This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

-Both nations delineated a LOC to serve as the informal boundary between India and Pakistan-administered areas of the Kashmir region. 

-India claims the whole of the former princely state of J&K, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.

-India's border with Bangladesh runs 4096.7 km (2545.57 miles). 

-West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the states which share the border with Bangladesh.

-Before 2015 there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil. These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border. 

-After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 sq km (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.

-The LAC is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China.

-It traverses 4057 km along the Indian states and UT of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

-The border with Nepal runs 1751 km (1088 miles)along the foothills of the Himalayas in the Northern India. 

-Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, WB and Sikkim are the states which share the border with Nepal.

-The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the Northeastern States. 

-The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India.

-The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. 

-It is the longest written national constitution in the world.

-It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament cannot override the constitution.

-It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950.

-The constitution replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. 

-To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.

-The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic, assures its citizens justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.

-The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a nitrogen-filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi.

Background

-In 1928, the All Parties Conference convened a committee in Lucknow to prepare the Constitution of India, which was known as the Nehru Report.

-With the exception of scattered French and Portuguese exclaves, India was under the British rule from 1858 to 1947. 

-From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of United Kingdom for these three years, as each princely state was convinced by Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British Government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country.

-Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. 

-India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign, democratic republic with the constitution. 

-Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950 which is celebrated every year in India as Republic Day.

Previous legislation

-The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. 

-Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. 

-The latter, which led to the creation of Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. 

-The Amendment act of 1935 is also a very important step for making the constitution for two new born countries. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.

Constituent Assembly

-The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies.

-The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period.

-In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, TT Krishnamachari said: 

Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in the House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable.

-B. R. Ambedkar in his concluding speech in constituent assembly on 25 November 1949 stated that:

-The credit that is given to me does not really belong to me. It belongs partly to Sir B.N. Rau the Constitutional Advisor to the Constituent Assembly who prepared a rough draft of the Constitution for the consideration of Drafting Committee.

-While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635.

-Timeline for formation of the Constitution of India

-6 December 1946: Formation of the Constitution Assembly (in accordance with French practice).

-9 December 1946: The first meeting was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House). The 1st person to address was J. B. Kripalani, Sachchidananda Sinha became temporary president. (Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting.)

-11 December 1946: The Assembly appointed Rajendra Prasad as its president, H. C. Mukherjee as its vice-president and, B. N. Rau as constitutional legal adviser. (There were initially 389 members in total, which declined to 299 after partition. Out of the 389 members, 292 were from government provinces, four from chief commissioner provinces and 93 from princely states.)

-13 December 1946: An "Objective Resolution" was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. This later became the Preamble of the Constitution.

-22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.

-22 July 1947: National flag adopted.

-15 August 1947: Achieved independence. India split into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.

-29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with B. R. Ambedkar as its Chairman. The other six members of committee were K.M. Munshi, Muhammed Sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Devi Prasad Khaitan[24] and BL Mitter.

-16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.

-26 November 1949: The Constitution of India was passed and adopted by the assembly.

-24 January 1950: Last meeting of Constituent Assembly. The Constitution was signed and accepted (with 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts).

-26 January 1950: The Constitution came into force. (The process took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days—at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million to finish.)

-G. V. Mavlankar was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) after India turned into a republic.

Membership

-B. R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. 

-Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians.

-Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.

-The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.

Drafting

-Sir B. N. Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly's constitutional adviser in 1946.

-Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.

-The draft of B.N. Rau consisted of 243 articles and 13 schedules which came to 395 articles and 8 schedules after discussions, debates and amendments.

-At 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed.

-Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight-person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair.

-A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.

-Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days.

-On 26 November 1949, it adopted the constitution, which was signed by 284 members.-The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day. The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar.

-The assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English.

-The original constitution is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose.

-Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada. The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. 

-Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India.

-The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹6.3 crore. The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted.

Influence of other Constitutions

-UK - Parliamentary Government, Nominal head of the State, Post of PM, more powerful Lower House, Single Citizenship, Legislative procedure, Bicameral Legislature, Rule of Law, Cabinet System, The Legislative Speaker, Prerogative writ, Parliamentary privileg

-US - FR, Written Constitution, Preamble, Federal, Impeachment of President, Post of VP, Supreme Court, Removal of SC & HC Judges, Electoral College, Independent Judiciary & Separation of powers, Judicial Review, President as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, Equal protection of law

-Ireland- DPSP, Nomination of Members of Rajya Sabha, Method of election of the President, 

-Australia - Freedom of trade, National legislative power to implement treaties, even on matters outside normal federal jurisdiction, Concurrent List, Provision of Joint Session of the Parliament, Preamble terminology

-France - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity in Preamble, Republic

-Canada - Quasi Federal Government with Strong Centre, Distribution of powers between Central & State governments, Residual powers, retained by the Central Government, Appointment of Governor of States by Centre, Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

-Soviet Union - Fundamental Duties (51A), Mandated Planning Commission to oversee economic development, Justice (social, economic, and political)

-Weimar Republic - Suspension of FR during emergency

-South Africa - Amendment, Election of Rajya Sabha members

-Japan - Procedure established by law, Laws on which the Supreme Courts functions 

Structure

-The Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation.

-At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules.

-At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution—after the Constitution of Alabama—in the world.

-The amended constitution has a preamble and 470 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts.

-With 12 schedules[d] and five appendices,

-it has been amended 105 times; the latest amendment became effective on 15 August 2021.

-The constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts:

-Preamble - with the words "socialist", "secular" and 'integrity' added in 1976 by the 42nd amendment

Part I – The Union and its Territory – Articles 1 to 4

Part II – Citizenship – Articles 5 to 11

Part III – Fundamental Rights – Articles 12 to 35

Part IV – Directive Principles of State Policy – Articles 36 to 51

Part IVA – Fundamental Duties – Article 51A

Part V – The Union – Articles 52 to 151

Part VI – The States – Articles 152 to 237

Part VII – States in the B part of the first schedule (repealed) – Article 238

Part VIII – Union Territories – Articles 239 to 242

Part IX – Panchayats – Articles 243 to 243(O)

Part IXA – Municipalities – Articles 243(P) to 243(ZG)

Part IXB – Co-operative societies – Articles 243(ZH) to 243(ZT)

Part X – Scheduled and tribal areas – Articles 244 to 244A

Part XI – Relations between the Union and the States – Articles 245 to 263

Part XII – Finance, property, contracts and suits – Articles 264 to 300A

Part XIII – Trade and commerce within India – Articles 301 to 307

Part XIV – Services under the union and states – Articles 308 to 323

Part XIVA – Tribunals – Articles 323A to 323B

Part XV – Elections – Articles 324 to 329A

Part XVI – Special provisions relating to certain classes – Articles 330 to 342

Part XVII – Languages – Articles 343 to 351

Part XVIII – Emergency provisions – Articles 352 to 360

Part XIX – Miscellaneous – Articles 361 to 367

Part XX – Amendment of the Constitution – Articles 368

Part XXI – Temporary, transitional and special provisions – Articles 369 to 392

Part XXII – Short title, date of commencement, authoritative text in Hindi and repeals – Articles 393 to 395

Schedules

Schedules are lists in the constitution which categories and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.

Union list - 98 subjects

State List - 61 subjects

Concurrent List - 52 subjects

Article 246 of the Constitution mentions three lists in the Seventh Schedule — union, state and concurrent lists.

Schedules

1st - It contains names of States & UTs (Territorial jurisdiction of states also included)

2nd - The provisions in relation to allowances, privileges, emoluments of: President of India, Governors, Speaker & Deputy Speaker, Chairman & Deputy Chairman, Speaker & Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assemblies, Chairman & Deputy Chairman of Legislative Councils, Supreme Court Judges, High Court Judges, CAG

3rd - oath & affirmation for: Union Ministers, Parliament Election Candidates, MPs, Supreme Court Judges, CAG, State Ministers, State Legislature Elections' Candidates, State Legislature Members, High Court Judges

4th - provisions in relation to the allocation of seats for States and UTs in the Rajya Sabha

5th - Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes

6th - administration of tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram

7th - three legislative lists

8th - 22 official languages 

9th - the state acts and regulations of that deal with land reforms and the abolition of the Zamindari system. It also deals with the acts and regulations of the Parliament dealing with other matters.

10th - disqualification of the members of Parliament and State Legislatures on the ground of defection.

11th - the provisions that specify the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.

12th -the powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.

Governmental sources of power:

-The executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature.

-Under Articles 52 and 53: the president of India is head of the executive branch

-Under Article 60: the duty of preserving, protecting, and defending the constitution and the law.

-Under Article 74: the prime minister is the head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties.

-Under Article 75(3): the Council of Ministers is answerable to the lower house.

-The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation, including a codified, supreme constitution; a three-tier governmental structure (central, state and local); division of powers; bicameralism; and an independent judiciary. 

-It also possesses unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS), and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.

-Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. 

-Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. 

-After the S. R. Bommai v. Union of India decision, such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.

-The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. 

-Article 370 gave special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

The legislature and amendments

-Article 368 dictates the procedure for constitutional amendments. Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament.

-An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. 

-Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures.

-Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. 

-During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III.

-Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document.

-The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.

-In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The commission submitted its report on 31 March 2002. However, the recommendations of this report have not been accepted by the consecutive governments.

-The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.

Limitations:

-In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. 

-Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. 

-According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when "read as a whole") cannot be abridged or abolished. 

-These "basic features" have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature" is decided by the courts.

-The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure:

-Supremacy of the constitution; Republican, democratic form of government; Its secular nature; Separation of powers; Its federal character.

-This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.

-In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine.

-The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights.

-The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.

The Judiciary

-The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution.

-Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds.

-The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).

-The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. 

-An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which cannot be changed by the legislature or the executive.

-Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the state must take measures to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services.

Judicial review

-Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. 

-In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. 

According to Article 13:

-All pre-constitutional laws, if they conflict wholly or in part with the constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the constitution ends the conflict; 

-the law will again come into force if it is compatible with the constitution as amended (the Doctrine of Eclipse).

-Laws made after the adoption of the constitution must be compatible with it, or they will be deemed void ab initio.

-In such situations, the Supreme Court (or a high court) determines if a law is in conformity with the constitution. 

-If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency (and where separation is possible), the provision which is inconsistent with the constitution is considered void. 

-In addition to Article 13, Articles 32, 226 and 227 provide the constitutional basis for judicial review.

-Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies).

-The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. 

-The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368(4), 368(5) and 31C.

The executive

- Chapter 1 of the Constitution of India creates a parliamentary system, with a Prime Minister who, in practice, exercises most executive power. 

-The prime minister must have the support of a majority of the members of the Lok Sabha, or lower House of Parliament. 

-If the Prime Minister does not have the support of a majority, the Lok Sabha can pass a motion of no confidence, removing the Prime Minister from office. 

-Thus the Prime Minister is the member of parliament who leads the majority party or a coalition comprising a majority.

-The Prime Minister governs with the aid of a Council of Ministers, which the Prime Minister appoints and whose members head ministries. Importantly, Article 75 establishes that "the Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the House of the People" or Lok Sabha.

-The Lok Sabha interprets this article to mean that the entire Council of Ministers can be subjected to a no confidence motion.[80] If a no confidence motion succeeds, the entire Council of Ministers must resign.

-Despite the Prime Minister exercising executive power in practice, the constitution bestows all the national government's executive power in the office of the President.

-This de jure power is not exercised in reality, however. Article 74 requires the President follow the "aid and advice" of the Council, headed by the Prime Minister.

-In practice, this means that President's role is mostly ceremonial, with the Prime Minister exercising executive power because the President is obligated to act on the Prime Minister's wishes.

-The President does retain the power to ask the Council to reconsider its advice, however, an action the President may take publicly. The Council is not required to make any changes before resubmitting the advice to the President, in which case the President is constitutionally required to adhere to it, overriding the President's discretion.

-Previous Presidents have used this occasion to make public statements about their reasoning for sending a decision back to the Council, in an attempt to sway public opinion.

-This system, with an executive who only possesses nominal power and an official "advisor" who possess actual power, is based on the British system and is a result of colonial influences on India before and during the writing of its constitution.

-The President is chosen by an electoral college composed of the members of both the national and state legislatures. Article 55 outlines the specifics of the electoral college. 

-Half of the votes in the electoral college are assigned to state representatives in proportion to the population of each state and the other half are assigned to the national representatives. The voting is conducted using a secret, single transferable vote.

-While the Constitution gives the legislative powers to the two Houses of Parliament, Article 111 requires the President's signature for a bill to become law. 

-Just as with the advice of the Council, the President can refuse to sign and send it back to the Parliament, but the Parliament can in turn send it back to the President who must then sign it.

Dismissal of the Prime Minister

-Despite the President's mandate to obey the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council, Article 75 declares that both "shall hold office during the pleasure of the President."

-This means the President has the constitutional power to dismiss the Prime Minister or Council at anytime. 

-If the Prime Minister still retained a majority vote in the Lok Sabha, however, this could trigger a constitutional crisis because the same article of the Constitution states that the Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha and must command a majority in it. 

-In practice the issue has never arisen, though President Zail Singh threatened to remove Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi from office in 1987.

-Presidential power to legislate

-When either or both Houses of Parliament are not in session, the Prime Minister, acting via the President, can unilaterally exercise the legislative power, creating ordinances that have the force of law. 

-These ordinances expire six weeks after Parliament reconvenes or sooner if both Houses disapprove.

- The Constitution declares that ordinances should only be issued when circumstances arise that require "immediate action." Because this term is not defined, governments have begun abusing the ordinance system to enact laws that could not pass both Houses of Parliament, according to some commentators.

-This appears to be more common with divided government; when the Prime Minister's party controls the lower house but not the upper house, ordinances can be used to avoid needing the approval of the opposition in the upper house. 

-In recent years, around ten ordinances have been passed annually, though at the peak of their use, over 30 were passed in a single year.

-Ordinances can vary widely on their topic; recent examples of ordinances include items as varied as modifications to land owner rights, emergency responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, and changes to banking regulations.

Federalism 

-The first article of the Constitution declares that India is a "Union of States".

-Under the Constitution, the States retain key powers for themselves and have a strong influence over the national government via the Rajya Sabha. 

-However, the Constitution does provide key limits on their powers and gives final say in many cases to the national government.

State powers in the Constitution

Rajya Sabha

-At the Union level, the States are represented in the Rajya Sabha or Council of States. 

-The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution lays out the number of seats that each State controls in the Council of States, and they are based roughly on each State's population.

-The members of each state legislature elect and appoint these representatives in the Council of States.

-On most topics the Rajya Sabha is coequal with the lower house or Lok Sabha, and its consent is required for a bill to become a law.

-Additionally, as one of the Houses of Parliament, any amendment to the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority in the Rajya Sabha to go into effect.

-These provisions allow the States significant impact on national politics through their representation in the "federal chamber".

State List

-The Constitution provides the States with a long list of powers exclusive to their jurisdiction.

-Generally only State Legislatures are capable of passing laws implementing these powers; the Union government is prohibited from doing so. 

-These powers are contained in the second list of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, known as the State List. 

-The areas on the State List are wide-ranging and include topics like public health and order and a variety of taxes. 

-The State List grants the states control over the police, healthcare, agriculture, elections, and more.

-Powers can only be permanently removed from the State List via a constitutional amendment approved by a majority of the states. 

-The Rajya Sabha, as the representative of the States, can temporarily remove an item from the State List so the Union parliament can legislate on it. 

-This requires a two-thirds vote and lasts for a renewable one-year period.

Amendments

-In addition to exerting influence over the amendment process via the Rajya Sabha, the States are sometimes involved in the amendment process. 

-This special, entrenched process is triggered when an amendment to the Constitution specifically concerns the States by modifying the legislature or the powers reserved to the states in the Seventh Schedule. 

-When this occurs, an amendment must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures for the amendment to go into effect.

Limitations on state powers

Union & Concurrent lists

-While the State List mentioned above provides powers for the States, there are two other lists in the Seventh Schedule that generally weaken them. 

-These are the Union and Concurrent lists. The Union List is the counterpart to the State List, containing the areas of exclusive jurisdiction of the Union government, where the states are prohibited from legislating. 

-Items on the Union List include the national defense, international relations, immigration, banking, and interstate commerce.

-The final list is the Concurrent List which contains the topics on which both the Union and State-level governments may legislate on. 

-These topics include courts and criminal law, unions, social security, and education.

-In general, when the Union and State laws on a Concurrent List item conflict, the Union-level laws prevail. 

-The only way for the State-level law to override the national one is with the consent of the President, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister.

-Additionally, any powers not on any of the three lists are reserved for the Union government and not for the states.

Appointment of governors

-The Governor of each State is given the executive power of the respective State by the Constitution.

-These Governors are appointed directly by the President of the central government. 

-Because the Prime Minister acts via the President, the Prime Minister is the one who chooses the Governors in practice.

-Once appointed, a Governor serves for a five year term or can be replaced by the President at any time, if asked to do so by the Prime Minister.

-Because the Union government can remove a Governor at any time, it is possible that Governors may act in a way the Union Government wants, to the detriment of their state, so that they can maintain their office. 

-This has become a larger issue as the State Legislatures are often controlled by different parties than that of the Union Prime Minister, unlike the early years of the constitution.

-For example, Governors have used stalling tactics to delay giving their assent to legislation that the Union Government disapproves of.

-In general the influence of the Union on State politics via the Governor is limited, however, by the fact that the Governor must listen to the advice of the Chief Minister of the State who needs to command a majority in the State Legislature.

-There are key areas where the Governor does not need to heed the advice of the Chief Minister. For example, the Governor can send a bill to President for consideration instead of signing it into law.

Creation of states

-Perhaps the most direct power over the States is the Union's ability to unilaterally create new states out of territories or existing states and to modify and diminish the boundaries of existing states.

-To do so, Parliament must pass a simple law with no supermajority requirements. The States involved do not have a say on the outcome but the State Legislature must be asked to comment.

-The most recent state to be created was Telangana in 2014.

-More recently, Ladakh was created as a new Union Territory after being split off from Jammu and Kashmir in 2019, and Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli were combined into a single Union Territory in 2020.

-The former was particularly controversial. Jammu and Kashmir was a full state, and the legislation creating Ladakh stripped the area of its status as a state and downgraded it to a Union Territory, allowing the Union Government to directly control it. This required no input from Jammu and Kashmir.

Federalism and the courts

-While the states have separate legislative and executive branches, they share the judiciary with the Union government. 

-This is different from other federal court systems, such as the United States, where state courts mainly apply state law and federal courts mainly apply federal law.

-Under the Indian constitution, the High Courts of the States are directly constituted by the national constitution. 

-The constitution also allows states to set up lower courts under and controlled by the state's High Court.

-Cases heard at or appealed to the High Courts can be further appealed to the Supreme Court of India in some cases.

-All cases, whether dealing with federal or state laws, move up the same judicial hierarchy, creating a system sometimes termed integrated federalism.

International Law

-The Constitution includes treaty making as part of the executive power given to the President.

-Because the President must act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister is the chief party responsible for making international treaties in the Constitution. 

-Because the legislative power rests with Parliament, the President's signature on an international agreement does not bring it into effect domestically or enable courts to enforce its provisions. 

-Article 253 of the Constitution bestows this power on Parliament, enabling it to make laws necessary for implementing international agreements and treaties.

-These provisions indicate that the Constitution of India is dualist, that is, treaty law only takes effect when a domestic law passed using the normal processes incorporates it into domestic law.

-Recent Supreme Court decisions have begun to change this convention, incorporating aspects of international law without enabling legislation from parliament.

-For example in Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v Birendra Bahadur Pandey, the Court held that "the rules of international law are incorporated into national law and considered to be part of the national law, unless they are in conflict with an Act of Parliament."

-In essence, this implies that international law applies domestically unless parliament says it does not.

-This decision moves the Indian Constitution to a more hybrid regime, but not to a fully monist one.

Flexibility

According to Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people."

-The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility.

-John Marshall, the fourth chief justice of the United States, said that a constitution's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves."

-A document "intended to endure for ages to come", it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.

The "right to life" guaranteed under Article 21[A] has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including:

-the right to a speedy trial;

-the right to water;

-the right to earn a livelihood,

-the right to health, and

-the right to education.

-At the conclusion of his book, Making of India's Constitution, retired Supreme Court Justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:

-If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! 

-A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people.

What is the Collegium system?

The Collegium system is one where the Chief Justice of India and a forum of four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court recommend appointments and transfers of judges. However, it has no place in the Indian Constitution. The system was evolved through Supreme Court judgments in the Three Judges Cases (October 28, 1998)

Why is Collegium system being criticised?

The Central government has criticised it saying it has created an imperium in imperio (empire within an empire) within the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court Bar Association has blamed it for creating a "give-and-take" culture, creating a rift between the haves and have-nots. "While politicians and actors get instant relief from courts, the common man struggles for years for justice.

How and when was the NJAC established?

The National Judicial Appointment Commission (NJAC) was established by amending the Constitution [Constitution (Ninety-Ninth Amendment) Act, 2014] passed by the Lok Sabha on August 13, 2014 and by the Rajya Sabha on August 14 2014. Alongside, the Parliament also passed the National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014, to regulate the NJAC's functions. Both Bills were ratified by 16 of the State legislatures and the President gave his assent on December 31, 2014. The NJAC Act and the Constitutional Amendment Act came into force from April 13, 2015.

Who will be in the NJAC?

It will consist of six people- the Chief Justice of India, the two most senior judges of the Supreme Court, the Law Minister, and two 'eminent persons'. These eminent persons are to be nominated for a three-year term by a committee consisting of the Chief Justice, the Prime Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and are not eligible for re-nomination.

If politicians are involved, what about judicial independence?

The judiciary representatives in the NJAC - the Chief Justice and two senior-most judges - can veto any name proposed for appointment to a judicial post if they do not approve of it. Once a proposal is vetoed, it cannot be revived. At the same time, the judges require the support of other members of the Commission to get a name through.

Public Interest litigation (PIL)

-In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in the country. But in reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the Poor in India, as legal procedures involve a lot of money a paperwork as well as take up a lot of time. In response to this, the Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of PIL.

-Through PIL, the judiciary has also shown readiness to take into consideration rights of those sections who cannot easily approach the courts. For this purpose, the judiciary allowed public spirited citizens, social organisations and lawyers to file petitions on behalf of the needy and the deprived. Justice Krishna lyer and Justice Bhagwati were champions of the concept of PIL in India.

Judicial Activism

-It means the assertive role played by the judiciary to force

-Other organs of the state namely the Executive and Legislature to discharge their duties properly, as assigned to them by the Constitution. The Judiciary has played an activist role in the recent 2G Scam Case, CVC Case, Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Case, Cancellation of Coal Blocks Case.

Landmark Judgements of the Supreme Court

-AK Gopalan Case, 1950

The case corresponds to the charges of violation of Fundamental Rights to freedom under the Preventive Detention Act. The court was approached over the validity of the act.

The Supreme Court held that the constitutional validity of a law cannot be verified by the judiciary and the judiciary has only the capacity to verify whether the procedure according to the law has been followed.

Champakam Dorairajan Case, 1951

-SC ruled that the DPSPs (Part IV) cannot override / abridge the FRs (Part III). DPSP have to conform to and run as subsidiaries to FRs. FRs could be amended by the Parliament by enacting constitutional amendment acts.

-The case challenged the reservations given to backward classes in educational institutions in Tamil Nadu.

-First Amendment Act was inserted as Article 15(4) in the Constitution.

-Shankari Prasad Case, 1952

-The First Constitutional Amendment Act, providing for reservations, was challenged that it violated Fundamental

-Rights. The court held that Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution.

Berubari Case, I960

-While ceding a part of Indian Territory to an alien state, the court in an advisory opinion held that such process cannot take place unless a Constitutional Amendment to that effect is made.

Golaknath Case, 1967

-The Supreme Court held that Constitutional Amendment cannot be extended to infringement of Fundamental Rights.

-FRs are sacrosanct, FRs cannot be amended for implementation of DPSPs.

Keshvananda Bharati Case, 1973

-SC held Article 31C as unconstitutional and invalid on the ground that Judicial Review is a basic feature of the Constitution and hence cannot be taken away.

-The Supreme Court propounded the Basic Structure Doctrine and held that certain basic features of the Constitution cannot be amended while others can be done, so without having a sweeping change in the Constitution.

Minerva Mills Case, 1980

-The Supreme Court held that Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy are complementary to each other and any law enacted to implement the Directive Principle could not curb the Fundamental Rights.

-Constitution is founded on the bedrock of the balance between FRs and DPSPs. FRs & DPSPs together constitute the core of the commitment to social revolution. 

-FRs & DPSP are like two wheels of a chariot, none is less than the other. To give absolute primacy to one over the other is to disturb the harmony of the Constitution. 

-This harmony and balance between the two is an essential feature of the basic structure of the Constitution.

Shah Bano Case, 1985

-The Supreme Court held that Muslim women also have right to get maintenance from their husbands when they are divorced.

St Stephen's College Case, 1992

-The Supreme Court held that at least 50% of seats in minority institutions should be reserved for non- minority students.

Indira Sawhney Case, 1993

-In this case, the Supreme Court declared that reservation cannot exceed 50% and introduced the 'creamy layer'.

SR Bommai Case, 1994

-The Supreme Court held that Federalism is a part of Basic Structure and State Governments cannot be arbitrarily dismissed by a Governor. The case laid down the guidelines in proving a majority under Article 356.

Chandra Kumar Case, 1997

-The Supreme Court upheld that judicial review is a part of basic structure of the Constitution.

TMA Pai Case, 2002

-The Supreme Court held that the right to administer minority educational institution is not absolute and the state can regulate the institutional affairs in the interest of educational standards.

2G Spectrum Scam, 2008

-The Supreme Court declared allotment of spectrum as unconstitutional and arbitrary' and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A Raja, the mam official accused in the 2G scam case.

Black Money, 2012

-The government refused to disclose details of about 18 Indian holding accounts in LGT Bank, Liechtenstein evoking a sharp response from a bench comprising Justice B Sudershan Reddy and SS Nijjar. The court ordered the SIT to probe the matter.

Right to Reject, 2013

-The Supreme Court directed me Election Commission to introduce a ‘None of the Above’ (NOTA) button on electronic voting machines and ballot papers which can be used by the voter to reject all the candidates contesting elections in a constituency.

Re-Opening Dance Bars, 2013

-Eight years after the Maharashtra Government banned dance bars in Mumbai, the Supreme Court on 16th July gave its go-ahead to their re-opening in the city and elsewhere in the state Supreme Court Recognises Transgenders as 'Third Gender, 2014

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