Machinery of Government of India

How the Government of India Works – Complete Explanation

The functioning of the Government of India is based on: ✅ The Constitution of India
✅ Separation of powers
✅ Hierarchy of decision-making
✅ Rules of business
✅ Inter-ministerial coordination

Let’s understand it step-by-step.

🏛️ 1. Three Pillars of the Indian Government

Branch =  Headed By = Role

Executive = President & PM = Implements laws, runs administration

Legislature =  Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha) = Makes laws, grants approval for spending

Judiciary = Supreme Court & High Courts = Interprets laws, ensures justice

🏗️ 2. Who Actually Runs the Government?

🔹Political Executive (Ministers)

• Elected representatives: Prime Minister, Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State.
  
  

• They take policy decisions, approve major plans, and are answerable to Parliament.
  
  

🔹Permanent Executive (Bureaucracy)

• Senior civil servants: IAS, IPS, IFS officers.
  
  

• They draft policies, implement decisions, run departments.
  
  

• Headed by Secretaries in each Ministry.
  
  

🧭 3. Who Guides What? Who Tells What to Do?

➤ The Prime Minister (PM)

• Head of the Government
  
  

• Guides all ministries and departments
  
  

• Takes final calls on national matters
  
  

• Chairs Cabinet Committees (like Security, Economic Affairs)
  
  

➤ President of India

• Constitutional Head
  
  

• Acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers
  
  

• Signs laws, appoints Governors, judges, etc.
  
  

➤ Cabinet Ministers

• Take decisions in their respective ministries
  
  

• Report to PM
  
  

➤ Cabinet Secretariat & PMO

• Coordinates inter-ministerial work
  
  

• PMO gives strategic direction to ministries
  
  

• Cabinet Secretariat ensures files are processed as per rules
  
  

📜 4. Rules That Define Work

✅ Allocation of Business Rules (AoBR), 1961

• Allocates subjects to ministries
  
  

• For example: Education, Railways, Health, etc.
  
  

✅ Transaction of Business Rules (ToBR), 1961

• Tells how the business is conducted
  
  

• Who approves what? When should a matter go to the PM or Cabinet?
  
  

🧾 5. How Functioning Happens: Step-by-Step

🧩 Example: How a Scheme like “Digital India” is implemented

Step

Action

1 - Idea generated by PM or Ministry

2 - Department prepares note for approval

3 - Sent to Ministry of Finance, Law Ministry, other stakeholders

4 - Once all agree, Cabinet Note is made

5 - Cabinet approves

6 - Scheme launched → Implementation → Monitoring

📊 6. Who Does What (Hierarchy)

Inside a Ministry:

• Minister – Takes political decisions
  
  

• Secretary – Top bureaucrat, policy advisor
  
  

• Joint Secretary – Division head
  
  

• Deputy Secretary / Director – File clearance, supervision
  
  

• Under Secretary – Drafts notes, supervises sections
  
  

• Section Officer / ASO – File movement, rule application
  
  

• Clerical Staff / MTS – Physical handling of files, support
  
  

🤝 7. How Ministries Coordinate

• Cabinet Committees: Common platform for big decisions
  
  

• NITI Aayog: Think-tank that provides inputs and coordinates with States
  
  

• E-office & File Movement: Digital tracking of approvals
  
  

• Inter-Ministerial Groups: For big issues like Climate, Disaster, Health
  
  

📌 8. Checks & Balances

• Parliament: Asks questions, debates bills, approves budget
  
  

• CAG (Comptroller & Auditor General): Audits government spending
  
  

• Central Vigilance Commission / Lokpal: Watchdogs against corruption
  
  

• RTI (Right to Information): Ensures transparency
  
  

📚 Example: A Real-World Scenario

If the Ministry of Health wants to start a National Mental Health Mission:

1. Drafted by Joint Secretary, vetted by Law & Finance
   
   

2. Sent to PMO and then to Cabinet
   
   

3. After Cabinet approval → Guidelines issued → Implementation by States
   
   

4. Budget allocation made by Finance Ministry
   
   

5. Scheme monitored by NITI Aayog or internal review committee
   
   

🧠 Final Summary

Component - Role

Constitution = Lays foundation

PM & Cabinet = Policy decisions

Ministries/Departments = Execute those decisions

Bureaucrats = Ensure rules are followed, decisions are implemented

Rules of Business = Guide allocation and decision-making

Parliament & Courts = Ensure accountability, transparency

🔝 Political Executive (at the top):

1. Cabinet Minister – Heads the ministry and is part of the Union Cabinet.
   
   

2. Minister of State (Independent Charge) – Heads a ministry without oversight from a Cabinet Minister.
   
   

3. Minister of State – Assists the Cabinet Minister in their duties.
   
   

🏢 Administrative Structure (Bureaucracy):

1. Secretary Level (Top Bureaucrat in the Ministry):

• Secretary to the Government of India
  
  

  • Administrative head of the ministry
    
    

  • Policy advisor to the Minister
    
    

  • Equivalent to Chief Secretary in State
    
    

2. Additional Secretary

• Assists the Secretary
  
  

• Heads a major wing or division
  
  

• Equivalent to Principal Secretary in States
  
  

3. Joint Secretary

• Heads a specific department or subject area within the ministry
  
  

• Reports to the Additional Secretary/Secretary
  
  

4. Director / Deputy Secretary

• Director: Senior level officer handling specific functions under a Joint Secretary
  
  

• Deputy Secretary: Assists in daily operations and implementation
  
  

5. Under Secretary

• Looks after files and processes, supports Deputy Secretary
  
  

• Coordinates with Section Officers for data and drafting
  
  

6. Section Officer (SO)

• Supervises Assistants and manages file movement and basic decisions
  
  

• Ensures communication between Under Secretary and lower staff
  
  

7. Assistant Section Officer (ASO)

• Drafts notes, maintains files, and assists SOs
  
  

8. Upper Division Clerk (UDC) / Lower Division Clerk (LDC)

• Routine clerical tasks, file keeping, typing, document management
  
  

9. Multi-Tasking Staff (MTS)

• Physical file movement, office maintenance support
  
  

🔗 HOW MINISTRIES ARE LINKED TO THE PMO

🏛️ 1. Prime Minister’s Office (PMO):

• The PMO is the nerve centre of the Government.
  
  

• It assists the Prime Minister in policy making, coordination among ministries, and supervision of critical government functions.
  
  

📌 Ministries are linked to the PMO in the following ways:

a. Administrative Oversight

• PM can give direction and supervision to any ministry.
  
  

• All ministers report to the PM, especially in matters of national importance.
  
  

b. Appointments and Approvals

• Appointments of Secretaries and other senior officers are often cleared through the PMO.
  
  

• Important projects and policies get reviewed at the PMO level.
  
  

c. Cabinet Secretariat Coordination

• The Cabinet Secretariat, under the PM, coordinates among all ministries.
  
  

• It circulates Cabinet decisions and monitors implementation.
  
  

d. Strategic Issues

• Ministries dealing with defense, external affairs, home, and finance are in constant touch with the PMO due to the strategic nature of their work.
  
  

🧠 Example:

If the Ministry of External Affairs is planning a bilateral treaty with another country, the PMO must be involved for clearance, inputs, and strategy.

🔄 HOW MINISTRIES ARE LINKED TO EACH OTHER

Ministries often work together in an inter-ministerial coordination framework for projects, schemes, and policies.

🤝 Coordination happens via:

1. Inter-Ministerial Committees/Groups
   
   

   • Formed for specific tasks or projects.
     
     

   • Include representatives from relevant ministries.
     
     

2. Cabinet Committees
   
   

   • E.g., Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) includes Ministers from Finance, Agriculture, Commerce, etc.
     
     

3. NITI Aayog
   
   

   • Works with all ministries on planning and evaluation.
     
     

   • Encourages coordination for sustainable development.
     
     

4. Joint Circulars / Notifications
   
   

   • Ministries may issue joint orders or share responsibilities.
     
     

5. E-office/ Digital Platforms
   
   

   • Ministries collaborate via electronic file movement and meetings.
     
     

🧠 Example:

The Smart Cities Mission involves:

• Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (lead),
  
  

• Ministry of Power (for electrification),
  
  

• Ministry of Environment (for sustainability),
  
  

• Ministry of IT (for digital infra).
  
  

They all coordinate to implement the mission smoothly.

🧩 Summary:

Link Type

Mechanism

Example

Ministry ↔ PMO

PMO supervision, Cabinet Secretariat

Foreign policy by MEA, cleared by PMO

Ministry ↔ Ministry

Committees, joint work, e-platforms

Smart Cities Mission, Digital India Initiative

✅ 1. LIST OF MINISTRIES (as per Government of India)

As of now, the Union Government has 50+ Ministries. Here’s a categorized overview of the major ministries:

A. Core Governance Ministries

• Ministry of Home Affairs
  
  

• Ministry of Finance
  
  

• Ministry of External Affairs
  
  

• Ministry of Law and Justice
  
  

• Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions
  
  

• Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs
  
  

B. Infrastructure & Development

• Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
  
  

• Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
  
  

• Ministry of Railways
  
  

• Ministry of Civil Aviation
  
  

• Ministry of Power
  
  

C. Economic & Industry-related

• Ministry of Commerce and Industry
  
  

• Ministry of Corporate Affairs
  
  

• Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME)
  
  

• Ministry of Heavy Industries
  
  

D. Social Sector Ministries

• Ministry of Education
  
  

• Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
  
  

• Ministry of Women and Child Development
  
  

• Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
  
  

• Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
  
  

• Ministry of Minority Affairs
  
  

E. Environment, Agriculture & Rural

• Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
  
  

• Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare
  
  

• Ministry of Rural Development
  
  

• Ministry of Jal Shakti
  
  

F. Science, Tech & Culture

• Ministry of Electronics and IT
  
  

• Ministry of Science & Technology
  
  

• Ministry of Culture
  
  

• Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
  
  

You can find the full list at: https://cabsec.gov.in

📂 2. ALLOCATION OF BUSINESS RULES (AoBR), 1961

📘 What is it?

• This is a constitutional framework that divides work among the Ministries/Departments.
  
  

• It is made under Article 77(3) of the Constitution.
  
  

• It’s like the job description of each ministry.
  
  

🛠️ What does it do?

• Specifies which subject falls under which ministry.
  
  

• Mentions attached/subordinate offices, autonomous bodies, and PSUs under each ministry.
  
  

🧠 Example:

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Allocation of Business:

• Forest policy and laws
  
  

• Environment protection
  
  

• Climate change coordination
  
  

• Wildlife and biodiversity
  
  

Ministry of Education

Allocation of Business:

• University Grants Commission (UGC)
  
  

• National Education Policy
  
  

• IITs, IIMs
  
  

• Digital learning platforms
  
  

🔄 3. TRANSACTION OF BUSINESS RULES (ToBR), 1961

📘 What is it?

• Defines how the business allocated to ministries is to be transacted.
  
  

• Also made under Article 77(3) of the Constitution.
  
  

🔍 What does it cover?

• Who takes decisions: Minister, PM, Cabinet?
  
  

• How inter-ministerial consultations are done
  
  

• How Cabinet notes are prepared
  
  

• How urgent business is handled
  
  

• Cases that must go to the PM or Cabinet
  
  

🧠 Example:

Let’s say Ministry of Defence wants to purchase military equipment worth ₹10,000 crore:

• As per ToBR, any deal above a certain limit must be placed before the Cabinet Committee on Security.
  
  

• File is initiated by Joint Secretary → Secretary → Defence Minister → PMO → Cabinet.
  
  

Another example: If Ministry of Health wants to introduce a national vaccination scheme, it must:

• Consult Ministry of Finance (for funding)
  
  

• Consult Law Ministry (if new rules are needed)
  
  

• Then send the Cabinet Note via Cabinet Secretariat
  
  

🧠 Summary Table:

Item

Purpose

Legal Backing

Example

List of Ministries

Names and structure of ministries

-

Ministry of Health, Ministry of Railways, etc.

Allocation of Business Rules

What each ministry is responsible for

Article 77(3)

MoE handles UGC, IITs, NEP

Transaction of Business Rules

How ministries conduct business, take approvals, consult

Article 77(3)

Defence deals, cabinet notes, inter-ministerial approvals

1. Ministry of Education

Departments:

• Department of School Education & Literacy: Focuses on primary and secondary education, literacy campaigns, and initiatives to promote education among all sections of society.​
  
  

• Department of Higher Education: Responsible for university education, technical education, scholarships, and the promotion of language development.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of School Education & Literacy: Formulation of policies related to school education, implementation of literacy programs, and promotion of inclusive education.​
  
  

• Department of Higher Education: Oversees institutions like the University Grants Commission (UGC), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs).​
  
  

2. Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship

Departments:

• Department of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship: Sole department focusing on skill development and promoting entrepreneurship across the country.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Coordination of skill development frameworks, removal of disconnect between demand and supply of skilled manpower, and promotion of innovative thinking for existing and future jobs.​Skill Development Ministry
  
  

3. Ministry of Cooperation

Departments:

• Department of Cooperation: Dedicated to realizing the vision of 'from cooperation to prosperity' by strengthening cooperative movements.​Wikipedia+5Cooperation Ministry+5Rural Development Ministry+5
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• General policy in the field of cooperation and coordination of cooperative activities across various sectors.​Cooperation Ministry
  
  

4. Ministry of Minority Affairs

Departments:

• Department of Minority Affairs: Focused on the development and welfare of minority communities in India.​Ministry of Minority Affairs
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Policy planning, coordination, evaluation, and review of regulatory and developmental programs for minority communities.​Ministry of Minority Affairs
  
  

5. Ministry of Rural Development

Departments:

• Department of Rural Development: Aims at improving the quality of life in rural areas through various programs and initiatives.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Public cooperation, matters related to voluntary agencies for rural development, and coordination of cooperative activities in rural sectors.​Rural Development Ministry
  
  

6. Ministry of Law and Justice

Departments:

• Department of Justice: Handles the administration of justice, appointment of judges, and legal reforms.​Department of Justice
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Appointments, resignations, and removals of Chief Justices and Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, their salaries, pensions, and related matters.​Department of Justice
  
  

7. Ministry of Commerce and Industry

Departments:

• Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Focuses on promoting industrial development and internal trade.​SCC Online+1Wikipedia+1
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Policies related to industrial development, promotion of internal trade, and facilitation of ease of doing business.

1. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare

Departments:

• Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare: Focuses on agricultural policy, farmer welfare schemes, and crop management.​
  
  

• Department of Agricultural Research and Education: Oversees research and education in agriculture, including institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare: Implementation of policies and programs related to agriculture, horticulture, and soil conservation.​
  
  

• Department of Agricultural Research and Education: Promotion and coordination of agricultural research and education.​
  
  

2. Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers

Departments:

• Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals: Deals with policy and planning for the chemical and petrochemical industries.​
  
  

• Department of Fertilizers: Responsible for planning and monitoring the production, distribution, and pricing of fertilizers.​
  
  

• Department of Pharmaceuticals: Focuses on the growth and development of the pharmaceutical industry.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals: Development of the chemical and petrochemical sectors, including policy formulation.​
  
  

• Department of Fertilizers: Ensuring the availability and distribution of fertilizers to farmers.​
  
  

• Department of Pharmaceuticals: Regulation and promotion of the pharmaceutical industry.​
  
  

3. Ministry of Commerce and Industry

Departments:

• Department of Commerce: Manages international trade, export promotion, and trade agreements.​
  
  

• Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Focuses on industrial policy, foreign direct investment, and intellectual property rights.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Commerce: Formulation and implementation of policies related to international trade.​
  
  

• DPIIT: Promotion of industrial development and internal trade, including startups and ease of doing business.​
  
  

4. Ministry of Communications

Departments:

• Department of Telecommunications: Oversees telecommunications policy, licensing, and regulation.​
  
  

• Department of Posts: Manages postal services across the country.​Wikipedia
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Telecommunications: Policy formulation and licensing in the telecom sector.​
  
  

• Department of Posts: Provision of postal services and related infrastructure.​
  
  

5. Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution

Departments:

• Department of Consumer Affairs: Protects consumer rights and regulates standards.​
  
  

• Department of Food and Public Distribution: Ensures food security through the Public Distribution System.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Consumer Affairs: Implementation of consumer protection laws and standards.​
  
  

• Department of Food and Public Distribution: Management of food procurement, storage, and distribution.​
  
  

6. Ministry of Defence

Departments:

• Department of Defence: Deals with defence policy and matters related to the armed forces.​
  
  

• Department of Defence Production: Focuses on the production of defence equipment and supplies.​
  
  

• Department of Defence Research and Development: Oversees research and development in defence technologies.​
  
  

• Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare: Looks after the welfare of ex-servicemen and their dependents.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of Defence: Defence policy, armed forces, and defence cooperation.​
  
  

• Department of Defence Production: Indigenous production of defence equipment.​Cabinet Secretariat+1latestlaws.com+1
  
  

• Department of Defence Research and Development: Development of new defence technologies.​
  
  

• Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare: Welfare schemes for ex-servicemen.​
  
  

7. Ministry of Education

Departments:

• Department of School Education and Literacy: Focuses on primary and secondary education and literacy programs.​
  
  

• Department of Higher Education: Oversees tertiary education, universities, and technical institutions.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Department of School Education and Literacy: Implementation of policies for school education and literacy.​
  
  

• Department of Higher Education: Regulation and development of higher education institutions.​
  
  

8. Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology

Departments:

• Department of Electronics and Information Technology: Responsible for policy matters relating to information technology, electronics, and the internet.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Promotion of e-governance, digital initiatives, and IT industry development.​
  
  

9. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Departments:

• Department of Environment, Forest and Climate Change: Handles environmental policies, forest conservation, and climate change initiatives.​
  
  

Allocation of Work:

• Implementation of policies for environmental protection and sustainable development.​
  
  

10. Ministry of Finance

Departments:

• Department of Economic Affairs: Manages economic policies, government expenditure, and financial markets.​
  
  

• Department of Expenditure: Oversees public financial management and expenditure.​
  
  

• Department of Revenue: Responsible for taxation policies and administration.​
  
  

• Department of Financial Services: Focuses on banking, insurance, and financial services.