Cell : the unit of life
SUMMARY***
All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vary in their shape, size and activities/functions. Based on the presence or absence of a membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, cells and hence organisms can be named as eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
A typical eukaryotic cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and facilitates transport of several molecules. The endomembrane system includes ER, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. All the cell organelles perform different but specific functions. Centrosome and centriole form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion. In animal cells, centrioles also form spindle apparatus during cell division. Nucleus contains nucleoli and chromatin network. It not only controls the activities of organelles but also plays a major role in heredity.
Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cisternae. They are of two types: rough and smooth. ER helps in the transport of substances, synthesis of proteins, lipoproteins and glycogen. The golgi body is a membranous organelle composed of flattened sacs. The secretions of cells are packed in them and transported from the cell. Lysosomes are single membrane structures containing enzymes for digestion of all types of macromolecules. Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis. These occur freely in the cytoplasm or are associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation and generation of adenosine triphosphate. They are bound by double membrane; the outer membrane is smooth and inner one folds into several cristae. Plastids are pigment containing organelles found in plant cells only. In plant cells, chloroplasts are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis. The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the stroma of dark reactions. The green coloured plastids are chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, whereas the other coloured plastids are chromoplasts, which may contain pigments like carotene and xanthophyll. The nucleus is enclosed by nuclear envelope, a double membrane structure with nuclear pores. The inner membrane encloses the nucleoplasm and the chromatin material. Thus, cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vary in their shape, size and activities/functions. Based on the presence or absence of a membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, cells and hence organisms can be named as eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
A typical eukaryotic cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and facilitates transport of several molecules. The endomembrane system includes ER, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. All the cell organelles perform different but specific functions. Centrosome and centriole form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion. In animal cells, centrioles also form spindle apparatus during cell division. Nucleus contains nucleoli and chromatin network. It not only controls the activities of organelles but also plays a major role in heredity.
Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cisternae. They are of two types: rough and smooth. ER helps in the transport of substances, synthesis of proteins, lipoproteins and glycogen. The golgi body is a membranous organelle composed of flattened sacs. The secretions of cells are packed in them and transported from the cell. Lysosomes are single membrane structures containing enzymes for digestion of all types of macromolecules. Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis. These occur freely in the cytoplasm or are associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation and generation of adenosine triphosphate. They are bound by double membrane; the outer membrane is smooth and inner one folds into several cristae. Plastids are pigment containing organelles found in plant cells only. In plant cells, chloroplasts are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis. The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the stroma of dark reactions. The green coloured plastids are chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, whereas the other coloured plastids are chromoplasts, which may contain pigments like carotene and xanthophyll. The nucleus is enclosed by nuclear envelope, a double membrane structure with nuclear pores. The inner membrane encloses the nucleoplasm and the chromatin material. Thus, cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
Unicellular organisms are capable of -(i) independent existence and (ii) performing the essential functions of life. Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living. Hence, cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and its improvement leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of the cell
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and its improvement leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of the cell
Cell Theory: -
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of the plant. At about the same time, Theodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded, based on his studies on plant tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells. On the basis of this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory however, did not explain as to how new cells were formed.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
Cell theory as understood today is: (i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells. (ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of the plant. At about the same time, Theodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded, based on his studies on plant tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells. On the basis of this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory however, did not explain as to how new cells were formed.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
Cell theory as understood today is: (i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells. (ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell: -
The onion cell (a plant cell) has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary and just within it is the cell membrane. The cells of the human cheek have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of the cell. Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus. This nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genetic material, DNA. Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell. The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells. Various chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’. Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles. The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles. Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells – both eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic. Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles – chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER. Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome which helps in cell division. Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities. Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while bacteria could be 3 to 5 µm. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich. Among multicellular organisms, human red blood cells are about 7.0 µm in diameter. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells. Cells also vary greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or even irregular. The shape of the cell may vary with the function they perform.
The onion cell (a plant cell) has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary and just within it is the cell membrane. The cells of the human cheek have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of the cell. Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus. This nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genetic material, DNA. Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell. The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells. Various chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’. Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles. The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles. Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells – both eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic. Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles – chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER. Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome which helps in cell division. Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities. Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while bacteria could be 3 to 5 µm. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich. Among multicellular organisms, human red blood cells are about 7.0 µm in diameter. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells. Cells also vary greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or even irregular. The shape of the cell may vary with the function they perform.
Prokaryotic Cell: -
The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. They vary greatly in shape and size. The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral). The organisation of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar even though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions. All
The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. They vary greatly in shape and size. The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral). The organisation of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar even though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions. All